1、e MANUAL ON INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY 48-GP-5M August 1981 Supersedes 48-GP-5 April 1970 Pour 16dition franaise commander (F)48-GP-5M Canada The CANADIAN GENERAL STANDARDS BOARD, under whose auspices this standard has been developed, is engaged in the production of voluntary standards in a wide range o
2、f subject areas through the medium of standards committees and the consensus process. The standards committees are representative of relevant interests including producers, consumers and other users, retailers, governrnents, educational institutions, technical, professional and trade societies, and
3、research and testing organizations. The CGSB has been accredited by the Standards Council of Canada as a national standards-writing organization. The standards that it develops and offen as ational Standards of Canada conform to the criteria and procedures established for this purpose by the Standar
4、ds Council of Canada. In addition to standards it publishes as National Standards, CGSB produces standards to meet particular needs, in response to requests frorn a variety of sources in both the public and private sectors. Although the intended prirnary application of each standard is stated in its
5、 Scope clause, it is important to note that it rernains the responsibility of the user of the standard to judge its suitability for his particular purpose. CGSB standards are subject to periodic review to ensure that they keep abreast of techno- logical progress. Suggestions for their improvement ar
6、e always welcorne, and are brought to the notice of the standards committees concerned. Changes to standards are issued either as separate amendrnent sheets or in revised editions of the standards. An up-to-date listing of CGSB standards, with details of latest issues and amendments, and including o
7、rdering instructions, will be found in the Catalogue of Standards which is published annually, with a supplement, and is available without charge upon request. Further information on the CGSB and its services and standards rnay be obtained from: The Secretary Canadian General Standards Board Ottawa,
8、 Canada K1A 1G6 Additional publications in this series: Recommended Practices for Magnetic Particle Inspection of Commercial Steel Castings, Forging and Weldments for Surface and Near-Surface Discontinuities Spot Radiography of Welded Butt Joints in Ferrous Materials Radiographie Inspection of Steel
9、 Castings Certification of Nondestnictive Testing Personnel (Industriel Radiography Methodl Recommended Practices for Ultrasonic lnsectinn -. of Stmctural Welds . ificaionof Nondestnictive esting personnel (Industriel Ultrasonic Mothodl Certification of Nondestnictive Testing Penonni!l (Magnetic Par
10、ticle Method) Certification of Nondestctive Testing Personnel (Liquid Penetrant Method) Liquid Penetrant Inspection Certification of Nondestctive Testing Personnel (Eddy Current Method) Available in late 1981. Manual on Magnetic Particle Inspection IMPORTANT NOTICE AVIS IMPORTANT CGSB Standards are
11、subject to periodical Les normes de IONGC font lobjet de review and New Editions and Arnend- rvision priodique. Une nouvelle kdition ments rnay he published frorn tirne to ainsi que des rnodificatifs peuvent ainsi time. tre publis de temps a autre. If you wish to receive Arnendrnents and Si vous dks
12、irez recevoir les modif icatifs he notified of the next New Edition. ou tre mis au courant de la prochaine please cornplete and return this card to: nouvelle cidition, veuillez remplir cette carte et nous la retourner a: Cinadian Genernl Siaritiar(ls Boarl lOffice tics normes gnrales di1 Caririda At
13、tention: Sales lattention de: Ventes Ottawa, Canada Ottawa, Canada K1A 1G6 K1A 1GG Ces STANDARD (E) 48-GP-5M NORME DE LONGC Addressl Adresse -. CI ty/Ville 1Country/Pays- PostallZip/Cocie postal -. _ ._ . . _ _ . - . _. Canadian General Standards Board MANUAL ON: INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY This standard
14、 is expressed in SI (Metric) units iii response to the requirements of Canadas metric conversion program. By agreement with the Committee on Nondestructive Testing, Radiography Method, it supersedes 48-GP-5,April 1970 which expressed the requirements in yardlpound units. August 1981 Supersedes 48-GP
15、-5 April 1970 PUBLISHED BY CANADIAN GENERAL STANDARDS BOARD, OTTAWA, CANADA KlA 1G6 OMinister of Supply and Services Canada - 1981 No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form wtthout the prior permission of the publisher. h Metric Commission Canada has granted use of the National Symbo
16、l for Metric Conversion. COMMITTEE ON NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING, RADIOGRAPHY METHOD (Membership at date of approval by the Committee) Barer, R.D. Behal, V.G. Bowe, E. Caron, V. Chapman, H. Chattergee, Dr A.K. Daly, M. Fujimoto, R. Havercroft. W.E. (Chairman) Lalonde, L. Lamarche, R.M. Martin, J. McCall
17、urn, D.M. Rostron, R. Shewchuk, G.J. Watson, D.L. Zirnhelt, J.H. Balcorne, G.H. (Secretary) Defence Research Establishment Dominion Foundries and Steel Ltd. Crawford Inspection Company Ltd. Department of Energy, Mines and Resources The Canadian Welding Bureau Velan Engineering Company Ltd. Dominion
18、Bridge Company Ltd. Department of National Health and Welfare Consultant Department of National Defence Department of National Defence Texas Gulf Canada Ltd. Horton CBI, Ltd. Canadian Kodak Sales Ltd. Aries Inspection Services Ltd. Department of National Defence NDT Engineering Ltd. Canadian General
19、 Standards Board FOREWORD This second edition of the rnanual on industrial radiography supersedes the original edition published in April 1970. It is intended to fulfill a two-fold purpose: (a) as a source of educational material to personnel who are interested in seeking certification as industrial
20、 radiographersaccording to the requirements of CGSB Standard 48-GP-4M, Certification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel (Industrial Radiography Method). (b) as a guide and reference text for educational organizations and training centers that are providing or planning courses of instruction in indu
21、strial radiography. Comments on the rnanual and suggestions for its irnprovement will be welcorned. They should be addressed to the Canadian General Standards Board, Ottawa, Canada K 1A 1G6. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter .Title 1 Mathematics of Radiography . 1 2 Basic Physics . 17 3 ProductionofX-Rays .
22、 27 4 Fundamentals of Radiography 51 5 Radiation Safety . 69 6 Films and Film Processing 113 7 Welds and Weldments . 135 Castings and Forgings . 153 Aircraft Structures and Components 167 Radiographic Techniques . 181 Special Radiographie and FluoroscopicTest Methods 199 Records and Reports 217 1.1
23、1.2 Chapter 1 MATHEMATICS OF RADIOGRAPHY SIMPLE EQUATIONS A simple equation is one that deals with knowns and one unknown. An example of this type is Ohms law which is expressed mathematically as: where: I is the current in amperes E is the potential in volts R is the resistance in ohms Therefore, i
24、fthe values of “Eu and “Ru are known, it is easy to solve for “1“. Example If E = 120 V and R is 30 Q, what is the value of I? Solution Similarly, either E or R can be calculated by rearranging the equation so that the unknown quantity or factor is on the left of the equal sign and al1 the knowns ar
25、e on the right. The rearranged equation would then be E = Ix R, or R = 11, respectively. It is to be noted that when a factor or expression is transferred from one side of the equal sign to the other, its sign must be changed, Le., plus to minus or multiplication to division, or vice versa. Examples
26、 (a) x + 5 = 12 Obviously, if the whole equation is reversed so that the unknown is on the right side, no changes in the signs need to be made. FRACTIONS Regarding fractions, the following rules apply: (il To multiply a fraction by a whole number, multiply the numerator of the fraction by the whole
27、number. Then, write this product over the denominator of the fraction. Always reduce the answer to lowest terms. -3 (numcirator) x 24 (whole number) 4 (denominator) (ii) To divide a fraction by a whole number, multiply the denominator of the fraction by the whole nurnber. Then write the numerator of
28、 the fraction over this product. Reduce answers to lowest terms. Example RATIO Ratio provides a method of comparing quantities. Thus an expression showing the relationship between two rnembers or quantities is called a ratio. 4The ratio of 4 to 2 is 4 - 2 or -2 Ratio can be written in another forrn
29、by using a symbol. This syrnbol is thecolon (:); hence instead of using words to write “The ratio of 4 to 2“ we use the syrnbol (:) and write (4:2). It should be rernembered that a ratio can be 4written as a fraction. Hence 4:2 can be written - .Consequently, since ratios can be written as fractions
30、, we can: 2 (i) divide each terrn of a ratio by the sarne nurnber without changing the value of the ratio. 12Hence -can be changed to 314 if we divide both terrns by 4.16 (ii) multiply each terrn of a ratio by the sarne nurnber without changing the value of the ratio. 5.5Hence -can be changed to -55
31、 if we multiply both terrns by 10.1O0 1O00 PROPORTION Proportion is an expression of equality between two ratios. Suppose we have two ratio expressions 6:12 and 7: 14. We know that the ratio of these expressions is 112 for both which rneans that they are equal. It is there- fore possible to write th
32、ese expressions in such a way as to show that they are equal. This expression is called a proportion. Proportion must be made up of two equal ratio expressions. The propor- tion6:12 = 7:14isreadas6isto12as7isto14. 6 7Furtherrnore, we can write this ratio portion in fraction form - = -12 14 In an exp
33、ression such as 6: 12 : 7: 14 the two outer numbers are known as extremes and the two inner nurnbers as means. extrernes 6:12 7: i4 t 3 rneans Thus 6 and 14 are the extremes and 7 and 12 are the means. It will be noted that the product of the extremes (here 6 x 14) is equal to the product of the rne
34、ans (here 7 x 12). This must always be true in any proportion. 6 7 Ifthe proportion is written as a fraction -= -, the above still holds true because 6 and 14 are the extremes 12 14 (6 x 14 = 84) and 7 and 12 are the means (7 x 12 =84). Because these products are always equal in any propor- tion it
35、is possible to find any part that may be missing. For example, find the missing extreme in 6:12 = 7: ? Product of the means. . . . . . . . . 7 x 12 = 84 Divide this product by the known extremes (here 6) . . 84 + 6 = 14. Thus: to find the missing extreme, the product of the means must be divided by
36、the known extreme. Similarly, the product of the extremes divided by the known mean will give the other mean. 1.5 SQUARE ROOT The square of a number is the answer obtained when the number is multiplied by itself. Thus, 16 is the square of 4 and 36 is the square of 6; 5 squared is 25 and 12 squared i
37、s 144. The number that is multiplied by itself to obtain the square is called the square root. Since 12 x 12 equals 144, we Say that 12 is the root of 144. Finding the square root or extracting the square root of a number is an operation that enables you to find the smaller number which, when multip
38、lied by itself or squared, gives that number. The symbol used to indicate square root is ;for example, mmeans the square root of 144. 1.5.1 Conventional Method of Determining the Square Root of a Number Example Find the square root of 21 16 1st. Starting from the right, separate the number into part
39、s of two figures each, by a comma. hence 21,16. 2nd. Place the symbol about the number hence 3rd. Look at the first part at the left (which in this example is 21). Determine what number multiplied by itself or squared will equal21 or be a bit less than 21. In this instance the number is 4 (4 x 4 = 1
40、6) since 5 (5 x 5 = 25) is too great for the part. 4th. Square the number and place the result under 21. The square of 4 is 16. 4 rn 16 5th. Subtract the 16 from 21. This gives you 5 and bring down the next pari which is 16, placing it beside the remainder 5; giving 516. 4 J2iTls 6th. Multiply the v
41、alue 4 already obtained, by 20. This gives 80 which is the first trial divisor. Write 80 to the left of the Iine. 4 ,f21,16 80 16-516 7th. Divitlt: 516 by 80. This gives 6, with a remainder. Add this 6 to 80, giving 86. 8th. Multiply 86 by 6. This gives us 516. Write 516 to the right of the line und
42、er 516. Write 6 as the second figure of the root. Subtract Since there is no remainder we say that the square root of 21 16 is 46. This of course can be readily verified by multiplying the figure by itself. Hence 46 x 46: 21 16 Other figures you may use for purposes of practice are: 3025, 6561,9604.
43、4900, 1849, 1225 1.5.2 The Newtofi (Trial-and-ErrorJ Method of Determining the Square Root of a Number - trial-and-erior method is simple and fast - method can be best explained using an example Example Find the square root of 731 - we know that the square of 20 is 400 and the square of 30 is 900; t
44、herefore, the square root of 731 lies between 20 and 30. Therefore, the first step is to find two numbers that, when squared, one will be greatei than 731 and one will be less. - 731 is closer to 900 than 400, so the square root of 731 will be closer to 30 than 20 - the next step is to take numbers
45、close to 30 and square them to see how close they come to 731. Lets square 27 and 28. - checking the result, we see that the square root of 731 is slightly larger than 27. - continue narrowing down the number to the accuracy you want. Lets see how close the square of 27.2 is to 731. 19040 54400 739.
46、84 - - - - - - 739.84 is still too large 1.6 27.1 x 27.1 27 1 18970 54200 734.41 - - - 734.41 is still too large try 27.04 5408000 731.1616 - - - 731.2 is very close - sirnply keep multiplying numbers to get as close as you want to 731 EQUATIONS INVOLVING POWERS OF NUMBERS The relationship of radiat
47、ion intensity to distance is given by the following equation: where: I is the new intensity Io is the original intensity D is the new distance Do is the original distance An equation of this type can be solved if it has 3 knowns and only 1 unknown. However, it is slightly more complicated than Our o
48、riginal equation in par. 1.1 because two of our factors (D2 and Do2) are exponential expressions (i.e. they are taken to the 2nd power, the 2 being called the exponent). Again, to solve such an equation we transfer the factors so that the unknown is on the left and al1 the knowns are on the right of
49、 the equal sign. For example, referring to the above equation and supposing we wish to find the new intensity if the distance is changed, we would use the form: orsimply, I = -0O2 10 D Example 1 If the original radiation intensity and distance are 100 units and 2 rn respectively, what will the intensity be at 4 rn? Solution = 25 units It should he noted that by doublingthe distance we have 9of the original intensity. If we wish to change the radiation level by changing the distance we can rearrange the above basic equation,
