1、ETR 261-2 October 1996 Source: ETSI TC-HF Reference: DTR/HF-01028-2 ICs: 33.020 Key words: Keypad, MMI, supplementary service Human Factors (HF); Assessment and definition of a harmonized minimum man-machine interface (MMI) for accessing and controlling public network based supplementary services; P
2、art 2: Literature review - Memory and related issues for dialling supplementary services using number codes ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute ETSI Secretariat Postal address: F-O6921 Sophia Antipolis CEDEX - FRANCE Office address: 650 Route des Lucioles - Sophia Antipolis - Valbon
3、ne - FRANCE X.400: c=fr, a=atlas, p=etsi, s=secretariat - Internet: secretariat etsi.fr Tel.: +33 4 92 94 42 O0 - Fax: +33 4 93 65 47 16 Copyright Notification: No pari may be reproduced except as authorized by written permission. The copyright and the foregoing restriction extend to reproduction in
4、 all media. O European Telecommunications Standards Institute 1996. All rights reserved. ETSI ETR*2bL-2 96 3400855 OL4Lbb 404 Page 2 ETR 261-2: October 1996 Whilst every care has been taken in the preparation and publication of this document, errors in content, typographical or otherwise, may occur.
5、 If you have comments concerning its accuracy, please write to “ETSI Editing and Committee Support Dept.“ at the address shown on the title page. Page 3 ETR 261-2: October 1996 ETSI ETR*2bL-2 96 a 3400855 OL4Lb7 340 W Contents Foreword . 5 Introduction 5 1 Scope 7 2 References 7 3 Definitions. symbo
6、ls and abbreviations . 11 4 Generalizing from memory research . 11 5 Methods of learning . 12 5.1 Passive listening 12 5.2 Repeated reading and verbatim recall . 12 5.2.1 Type of coding and verbatim recall . 13 5.2.2 Counter evidence 13 5.3 Incidental learning and levels/amount of processing . 14 5.
7、4 Memorizing numbers . 14 5.4.1 Natural numbers vs code numbers . 14 5.4.2 Learning arbitrary numbers . 15 5.5 Learning the * and # symbols 15 5.6 Learning the services . 16 5.7 Other ways to aid learning . 17 5.7.1 Names for services and commands 17 5.7.2 Distributed practice and practice retrieval
8、 effects . 18 5.8 interference 18 5.9 Organization and improving memory performance 19 5.9.1 Summary of using organization . 21 5.9.1.1 The services 21 5.9.1.2 Service and command names . 21 5.9.1.3 Code numbers . 21 5.9.1.4 Ordering of arguments . 21 6 Using a reminder card . 21 6.1 Relevant findin
9、gs . 22 6.1.1 Phonological coding 22 6.1.2 The modality effect 22 6.1.3 The suffix effect and other disruption 22 6.1.4 Dialling long sequences 23 6.1.5 Digit span capacity 23 7 Issues still to be reviewed . 25 7.1 Effect of age on remembering the codes . 25 8 Summary conclusions . 25 History 26 ETS
10、I ETR*2bL-2 96 3400855 OL4Lb88 287 Page 4 ETR 261-2: October 1996 Blank page ETSI ETR*2bL-2 96 3400855 OL4Lb87 113 Page 5 ETR 261 -2: October 1996 Foreword This ETSI Technical Report (ETR) has been produced by the Human Factors (HF) Technical Committee of the European Telecommunications Standards In
11、stitute (ETSI). ETRs are informative documents resulting from ETSI studies which are not appropriate for European Telecommunication Standard (ETS) or Interim European Telecommunication Standard (I-ETS) status. An ETR may be used to publish material which is either of an informative nature, relating
12、to the use or the application of ETSs or I-ETSs, or which is immature and not yet suitable for formal adoption as an ETS or an I-ETS. Introduction The Technical Committee for Human Factors has prepared this ETSI Technical Report to report publicly its work on the assessment and definition of a harmo
13、nized minimum man-machine interface for the access and control of public network based supplementary services. It is intended to complement ETS 300 738 30. This ETR constitutes part 2 of a multi-part ETR (“Assessment and definition of a harmonized minimum man-machine interface (MMI) for accessing an
14、d controlling public network based supplementary services“), whose parts have the following titles: Part 1: “General approach and summary of findings“; Part 2: “Literature review - Memory and related issues for dialling supplementary services using number codes“; Part 3: “Experimental comparison of
15、two MMls - Simulated UPT access and prototype ISDN supplementary services“; Part 4: “Experimental comparison of the effect of categorized and non-categorized formats within user instructions“; Part 5: “Experimental comparison of the CEPT and GSM codes schemes“; Part 6: “Survey of existing PSTN, ISDN
16、 and mobile networks, and a user survey of supplementary service use within Centrex and PBX environments“; Part 7: “Experimental evaluation of draft ETS 300 738“ ETSI ETR82hL-2 96 3400855 OL4L690 73.5 Page 6 ETR 261-2: October 1996 Blank page Page 7 ETR 261-2: October 1996 ETSI ETRx2bL-2 96 3400855
17、0141691 871 = 1 Scope This multi-part ETSI Technical Report (ETR) presents the results of the research work conducted to develop a European Telecommunication Standard (ETS) defining a harmonized minimum man-machine interface (MMI) for the access and control of public network based telecommunications
18、 setvices, and in particular supplementary services. This part 2 of the ETR presents a review of the existing literature on memory and related issues concerning accessing and controlling supplementary services with numeric codes. 2 References For the purposes of this ETR, the following references ap
19、ply: BaddeleyAD: “Short-term memory for word sequences as a function of acoustic, semantic and formal similarity“ in “Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology“: 1966: no. 18, pp 362-365. Baddeley AD: “The influence of acoustic and semantic similarity on long-term memory for word sequences“ in “Q
20、uarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology“: 1966: no. 18, pp 302-309. 131 Baddeley AD: “Working Memory“: Oxford: Oxford University Press: 1986. Pl Baddeley AD: “Human Memory: Theory and Practice“: 1990: Hove: Erlbaum. i51 71 191 11 21 11 31 Baddeley AD Man Machine interface (MMI) of the mobile sta
21、tion (MS) (GSM 02.30)“. ETR 170 (1995): “Human Factors (HF); Generic user control procedures for telecommunications terminals and services“. ETS 300 738: “Human Factors (HF); Minimum Man Machine Interface (MMI) to public network based supplementary services“. ETR 261 -6: “Human Factors (HF); Assessm
22、ent and definition of a harmonized minimum man-machine interface (MMI) for accessing and controlling public network based Supplementary services; Part 6: Survey of existing PSTN, ISDN and mobile networks, and a user survey of supplementary service use within Centrex and PBX environments“. Gardiner J
23、M, Craik FIM Assessment and definition of a harmonized minimum man-machine interface (MMI) for accessing and controlling public network based supplementary services: Part 1 : General approach and summary of findings“. 3 Definitions, symbols and abbreviations For the purposes of this part of the ETR,
24、 the definitions, symbols and abbreviations given in pari 1 72 of the ETR apply. 4 Generalizing from memory research From knowledge of memory derived from experimental psychology, one can formulate a number of expectations about how people will cope with different command structures and situations i
25、nvolving the use of number codes and the and # symbols available on telephones. However, most memory research is based on laboratory learning situations that differ from the way that people may be expected to learn telephone supplementary service commands. This extends even to experiments designed s
26、pecifically to investigate learning and memory of such codes. For example, Jones, 1990 45 had subjects learn 2-digit code commands. Although the command language was for instructing a robot to do household tasks, the language and experiment were specifically aimed at studying the design of codes for
27、 PBX commands. Subjects were instructed to learn as many of 47 command codes as they could in 1 O minutes. It seems likely that this is very different from the way users of supplementary services learn the codes. Presumably, real users will start by looking up codes as they use them. Learning the co
28、des may be incidental or it may be that people learn them intentionally in small groups or one at a time, starting with the most useful; or because the rememberer notices some aspect that makes a number easy to remember. Certainly it seems unlikely that people sit down and try to learn as many as po
29、ssible in a set amount of time. This does not necessarily mean that the results from experiments such as Joness cannot be applied generally to other situations. There are several ways to proceed from such results. One can study what happens in situations where people do learn in this way, looking at
30、 the literature on incidental learning etc.; set up longitudinal experiments; or, perhaps best, study what happens when a new telephone system with such services is installed in an organization. The organization might even allow comparison of different groups that vary in the instructions they are g
31、iven, or in some other way. One can also try to understand the existing results based on theoretical understanding of memory. This may allow some prediction about whether results will generalize to particular situations. This is the approach taken in much of this report. Some learning and memory phe
32、nomena are fairly robust and are encountered in many different types of task. One of these is the distributed practice effect: the superiority of spreading out practice rather than massing it. This is found in mice learning mazes and humans learning typing skills. It is found over relatively long pe
33、riods: an hours practice per day is better than two hours for half the number of days. It is also found over relatively short periods, so that repetitions of a to-be-remembered word in a list of such words produce better recall if the repetitions are far apart than if they are close together (Melton
34、, 1970 W). Page 12 ETR 261-2: October 1996 ETSI ETRx261-2 9h e 3400855 OL4Lbb 353 = However, many results are not so robust; for example, Barnard and Grudin, 1988 8 report apparently contradictory experiments in designing sets of command names where the different results turn out to be explicable in
35、 terms o not being.able to generalize between two superficially similar situations that differ in some subtle but important way. A theoretical understanding of what is going on can help determine when generalization is likely to be appropriate. NOTE: One must also be cautious about assuming that mem
36、ory skills themselves will generalize from one task to another. FOP example, a student practised over 20 months and increased his digit span from about 7 to 80 digits; however, the effect of the practice did not even generalize to memory span for consonants, which remained at only about 6 when digit
37、 span had already increased substantially (Ericsson, Chase and Falcon, 1980 27). 5 Methods of learning This clause deals with learning the codes, in other words, committing them to long-term memory for dialling without reference to an external reminder. In some cases it is necessary to conduct relev
38、ant experiments using numbers as the material to be remembered, but most of the studies on such memory have been based on other material, typically individual non-digit words. In these cases it is necessary to try, perhaps from theoretical constructs, to reason as to what the relevance of the studie
39、s is for remembering numbers. Also, memorizing numbers used for counting or measurements seems to be different from memorizing arbitrary number codes. 5.1 Passive listening Simply having users listen passively to the code numbers is unlikely to result in their learning the numbers, even if the numbe
40、rs are repeated regularly over long periods. Bekerian and Baddeley, 1980 9 investigated the effect of the BBCs campaign to advertise the new wavelengths for their existing radio services. According to the claimed hours of listening, their subjects must have heard over 1 O00 broadcasts of the new num
41、bers, but accurate recall ranged from 12 Oh to 22 Oh, depending on the radio service. Over 70 % of responses were “dont know“. This was despite the fact that the message was not entirely ignored as most of the subjects were well aware that the change was going to happen. It seems that different type
42、s of information require different methods of assimilation. Extrapolating from these results to learning codes for telephone supplementary services, one would expect that constant repetition is unlikely to be successful in learning the codes themselves. On the other hand, simple explanations of the
43、services available should lead to at least some learning, and this is something that users need to know before they can be expected to learn the corresponding codes. However, whether all the services should be introduced to new users at the same time needs further consideration (see following subcla
44、uses). 5.2 Repeated reading and verbatim recall If repeated listening to the codes is of little help in learning them, maybe users reading the codes themselves would be of more value. However, again the evidence is that merely reading them may be of little help in learning them. The evidence is that
45、 it partly depends on whether an attempt is made to learn the material and to what aspects attention is paid (e.9. phonological or semantic). Verbatim recall is fairly rarely required and use of language seems to have evolved to leave an understanding of, and memory for, the meaning of what has been
46、 said or read rather than the words in which it is expressed or their order. Number codes have to be recalled verbatim. For example, a certain individual copies his credit card number once a month, reading it and then writing it verbatim on the back of a cheque, and he additionally reads it out over
47、 the phone from time to time, yet he can only reliably recall the first digit. Stanford, 1917 Conrad and Hull, 1964 20; Baddeley, 1966a l, 1966b 2; Sachs, 1967 63, Kitsch and Buschke, 1969 47). Strings of code digits and the symbols * and # are relatively devoid of meaning in the way normal words an
48、d language have meaning, and one might therefore expect long-term learning of them not to be natural or easy. One of the few situations that demand verbatim recall is in acting. Most acting requires that performances are recited more or less verbatim. It is particularly so for plays such as those of
49、 Shakespeare, where the words themselves are important, or films and TV plays, where timing of shots and instructions to camera operators are important. Also other actors need verbatim cues to start them off. Actors report that they have to make a deliberate effort to learn their lines and large individual differences have been claimed in the time and effort involved in getting “off book. So from both Sanfords prayers and from actors it seems that althoiigh the meaning of text can easily be remembered from reading, perfect verbatim recall i
