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13、adprao, Bangkok 10901 United Kingdom. Airplan Flight Equipment Ltd. (AFE), la Ringway Trading Estate, Shadowmoss Road, Manchester M22 5LH 9/03 Catalogue of ICAO Publications and Audio-visual Training Aids Issued annually, the Catalogue lists all publications and audio-visual training aids currently
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15、 or networking permitted without license from IHS-,-,-TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Executive Summary (VU) Abbreviations . (Si) Chapterl. Background . 1 Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEZP) 1 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and theKyotoProtoco1 . 1 ICAOacti
16、on 2 IPCC Special Report on Aviation and the Global Atmosphere 2 ICAOs approach to engine emissions 4 summary . 5 . Chapter2. Airport operations 6 Introduction . 6 6 Groundtransport . 12 Aircraft operations . 12 Summary . 14 Previousworkby ICA0 . 6 Airport design and facilities Groundsupportequipmen
17、t . 6 Chapter 3. Aircraft environmental performance 16 Introduction . 16 Fuel efficiency improvements and advances in aircraft and engine design 16 Fleet composition and utilization 16 Trends . 18 Future technological improvements 20 summary . 22 Chapter4. Maintenance . 23 Introduction . 23 Airframe
18、 maintenance and aerodynamic deterioration 23 Engine maintenance and performance deterioration . 27 summary . 31 (iii) Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization Provided by IHS under license with ICAONot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS-,-,-(iv) IC
19、A0 Circular 303-ANI176 Chapter 5 . Mass reduction . 32 Introduction . 32 Empty aircraft mass 32 Centre of gravity . 33 Fueltankering . 34 Summary . 34 Extrafuel . 34 Chapter 6 . Air traffic management . 36 uitroduction . 36 CNS/ATMcomponents 36 Limitations of the current ATM system 37 Developments i
20、n Europe . 38 ATM opportunities in Europe . 40 Developments in the United States . 46 Worldwide developments 63 Cockpit display of traffic information (CDTI) 63 Fuel saving and emissions reduction . 64 Summary . 66 Chapter 7 . Non-revenue flying . 67 Introduction . 67 Training: flying versus simulat
21、ion . 67 Positioning flights 67 Ferryflights . 68 Testflights 68 Development - trial installation 69 Enginetesting . 69 Summary . 69 Chapter 8 . Flighuroute planning and other operational issues . 70 Introduction . 70 Routes . 70 Route network structure . 71 Fuelreserves 71 Noise constraints 72 Exte
22、nded range operations by twin-engined aeroplanes (ETOPS) . 73 Fuel freezing point . 74 Fuel formulation . 74 Weather forecasting 74 Aircraft and engine performance monitoring . 75 Summary . 75 Chapter 9 . Take-off and climb . 76 Introduction . 76 Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization P
23、rovided by IHS under license with ICAONot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS-,-,-ICA0 Circular 303-AN/176 fv) Derated and reduced thrust take-Offs . 76 Optimization of climb profiles 76 Noise constraints . 76 Summary . 77 Chapter 10 . Cruise . 78 Introduction
24、. 78 78 Systemmanagement 78 Otherfactors 79 Speed and altitude optimization . summary . 79 Chapter 11 . Descent and landing . 80 Introduction . 80 Holding 80 Fuel jettisoning . overweight landings . 80 Descent profile optimization 81 Approachprocedure 82 Landingandtaxiing 82 Summary . 82 Chapter 12
25、. Load factor improvement . 83 History 83 Supply anddemand . 83 Efficiency 85 Futuretrends 85 Summary . 86 Chapter 13 . Implementation . 87 Needforaction 87 Summary . 89 Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization Provided by IHS under license with ICAONot for ResaleNo reproduction or networ
26、king permitted without license from IHS-,-,-EXECUTIVE SUMMARY PURPOSE 1. This circular, which was developed by the ICA0 Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP), identifies and reviews various operational opportunities and techniques for minimizing fuel consumption, and therefore emissi
27、ons, in civil aviation operations. This circular is not intended as a basis for any regulatory action. Wherever possible, it identifies specific actions to be taken by the major stakeholders in civil air transport in order to minimize fuel consumption, together with practical examples. It also descr
28、ibes the conditions and limitations associated with these actions. STRUCTURE OF THE CIRCULAR 2. The circular begins by reviewing the impetus for minimizing fuel consumption in order to limit engine emissions. Next, opportunities for improvements at airports are considered. The circular then focuses
29、on the historical record of fuel saving in the civil aircraft fleet and the anticipated continued improvement in aircraft fuel efficiency in future. This is followed by the identification of fuel-saving opportunities during ground-based activities before flight, including both maintenance and the re
30、duction of aircraft mass. The possibilities for in-flight fuel saving are then considered, with particular focus on the input from airlines and air traffic services providers. The potential for increased efficiency through load factor improvement is then reviewed. Finally, some specific examples are
31、 provided of changes that each stakeholder (airlines, airports, ATC providers, airworthiness authorities, environmental agencies and other government bodies, and other interested parties) could consider in order to minimize the amount of fuel used. PRINCIPLES OF FUEL SAVING 3. Minimizing the fuel co
32、nsumed on each flight will generally minimize all aircraft emissions. For economic and efficiency reasons, the commercial aviation industry has already developed and implemented many techniques to minimize fuel usage. Historically, most improvements in fuel consumption have been attributable to larg
33、er and more efficient aircraft, resulting in a 70 per cent gain in fuel efficiency since 1970. It is estimated that the future medium-term improvement in fuel consumption of the worlds commercial air transport fleet, per unit of productivity (e.g. tonne-kilometre), will be in the order of one per ce
34、nt per year. 4. summarized as follows: The operational opportunities and techniques for minimizing aircraft fuel consumption can be a) fly the most fuel-efficient aircraft type for the sector; b) taxi the most fuel-efficient route; c) fly the most fuelefficient route; (vii) Copyright International C
35、ivil Aviation Organization Provided by IHS under license with ICAONot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS-,-,-(viii) ICA0 Circular 303-AN/176 d) fly at the most fuelefficient speed; e) operate at the most economical altitude; f) maximize the aircraft?s load fac
36、tor; g) minimize the empty mass of the aircraft; h) load the minimum fuel to safely complete the flight; i) j) minimize the number of non-revenue flights; and maintain clean and efficient airframes and engines. OPERATIONAL RESTRICTIONS 5. constraints, environmental trade-offs and specific situations
37、. There are four major factors that restrict operational decisions or procedures: safety, legal 6. The overriding consideration should always be that safety standards must not be compromised by any of the changes made in the interest of fuel conservation. Indeed, many air transport regulations place
38、 legal constraints on fuel conservation. 7. Another consideration is the potential trade-off between reducing aircraft noise and reducing engine emissions. Historically, many techniques to reduce the impact of aircraft noise near airports have been developed and implemented in both aircraftlengine d
39、esign and operation. Most of these techniques tend to increase fuel consumption and therefore have a negative effect on the environment. Moreover, the penalty for changes to further reduce noise is now much greater than before since technological improvements are much smaller and more difficult and
40、costly than the simpler improvements that have already been incorporated into current production aircraft. 8. All decisions regarding changes to operational procedures depend on the specific situation (such as weather, equipment and facilities) associated with each flight, aircraft and crew. It shou
41、ld be noted that only a few of the techniques identified might be practical, or even possible, to incorporate into the majority of flights, and individual operators may already have incorporated a number of them into their current operations. FINDINGS 9. Aircraft, on average, are responsible for onl
42、y about half of the emissions produced at airports. The other main emissions sources and fuel consumers are ground transport and ground support equipment (GSE). Airports vary greatly in terms of their current situation and their potential for appropriate improvements. This includes the design of the
43、 airport as well as the number and variety of restrictions that may be contributing to operational inefficiencies. 10. Operational opportunities and techniques can only be considered in the context of airport and air traffic constraints, operational requirements, and individual operator circumstance
44、s on a given flight. There has been steady progress in making aircraft and airline operations more fuelefficient, but with 14 o00 aircraft Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization Provided by IHS under license with ICAONot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking permitted without license
45、from IHS-,-,-ICAO Circular 303-AN/176 (ix) in the worlds current commercial jet transport fleet, the speed of implementation of technological improvements in aircraft and engine design is limited. Changes to operating procedures or improvements to infrastructures may therefore offer significant and
46、more immediate ways of improving efficiency. 11. Good engine and airframe maintenance procedures are an essential part of maintaining optimum fuel consumption. Engine wear and airframe imperfections, such as missing fairings and other small nonessential parts, reduce fuel efficiency. A small investm
47、ent in a repair may save a substantial amount of fuel. This circular provides examples of the specific fuel-saving benefits that can be derived from various maintenance actions. 12. Reducing the aircraft mass will also reduce the fuel consumed; a potential one per cent saving has been estimated. Mod
48、ern equipment, communications and procedures may allow changes while maintaining or improving safety levels. Particularly on long flights, it is important not to carry excess fuel because it makes ups such a large part of the aircrafts mass. Generally though, the amount of fuel carried is determined
49、 by legal or safety considerations. 13. Inevitably, some non-revenue airline flights will be carried out for safety, training or regulatory reasons, as well as some positioning flights to deliver an aircraft to a particular location for operational purposes. However, the amount of non-revenue flying and associated fuel consumption has decreased due to the
