1、 IMO/UNEP GUIDANCE MANUAL ON THEAssessment and Restorationof Environmental Damage following Marine Oil Spills2009 EDITIONBINTERNATIONALMARITIMEORGANIZATIONLondon, 2009Published in 2009by the INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION4 Albert Embankment, London SE1 7SRPrinted in the United Kingdom by CPI Bo
2、oks Limited, Reading RG1 8EXPhotographs reproduced with kind permission of theInternational Tank Owners Pollution Federation (ITOPF) andDr. Ezio Amato, Senior Researcher,Istituto Superiore per la Protezione e la Ricerca Ambientale (ISPRA)24681097531ISBN: 978-92-801-1501-7IMO PUBLICATIONSales number:
3、 I580ECopyright # IMO/UNEP 2009All rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced,stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means,without prior permission in writing from theInternational Maritime Organizationand the United Nations Environment Programme.Forewo
4、rdOn 27 July 2003, the oil tanker Tasman Spirit ran aground spilling a portion ofits 67,000-tonne cargo of Iranian Light Crude Oil into Karachi Harbour, inKarachi, Pakistan. The loss of product resulted in environmental damage withheavy oiling of the shoreline in Karachi Harbour and surrounding area
5、s.Recognizing the need for international guidance to assist nations in assessingdamage to natural resources following major oil spills in the aftermath of thisincident, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), soon there-after, initiated the development of a manual on natural resource damage
6、assessment and restoration following major oil spills. Given IMOs specializedexpertise on preparedness for and response to accidental marine pollutionissues and the long history of collaboration between IMO and UNEP, the twoorganizations agreed to the development of the Manual as a joint publication
7、.With a view to providing operational guidance, the IMO/UNEP GuidanceManual on the Assessment and Restoration of Environmental Damagefollowing Marine Oil Spills has been developed through the OPRC-HNSTechnical Group of the Marine Environment Protection Committee of IMO, infull collaboration and part
8、nership with the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme.The objective of the Manual is to provide guidance on strategies that may beused to assess the damage and subsequent recovery of the environmentresulting from marine pollution incidents. Available techniques areconsidered together with criteria to
9、 help judge the feasibility of suchmeasures to bring about successful recovery of those environments.The Manual emphasizes the importance of pre-spill planning and provides anoverview of assessment techniques and restoration measures in variousecosystems. It also provides guidance on opportunities f
10、or compensationthrough the international oil compensation schemes. Practical examples ofnatural resource assessment and restoration are provided through a series ofcase studies.iiiAcknowledgementThe present Manual is the result of the co-operative efforts of many delegatesand international experts.
11、Dr. Ezio Amato (ICRAM, Italy) and Dr. Jon Moore(Consultant to UNEP) have served as contributors and co-editors of theManual, with the support of the IMO and UNEP Secretariats. They would liketo express their appreciation to the following individuals for their considerableefforts and contributions th
12、roughout the process:Eugene Clonan (DOT, Ireland)Kevin Colcomb (MCA, United Kingdom)Chiara Della Mea (IOPC Funds)Eric English (NOAA, United States)Cristina Farchi (ICRAM, Italy)Stephane Grenon (EC, Canada)Doug Helton (NOAA, United States)Sjon Huisman (DMZ, Netherlands)Alison Lane (MNZ, New Zealand)M
13、ark Meza (USCG, United States)Hugh Parker (ITOPF, United Kingdom)Marina Penna (ICRAM, Italy)Karen Purnell (ITOPF, United Kingdom)Nick Quinn (MNZ, New Zealand)Julian Roberts (MNZ, New Zealand)Katharina Stanzel (ITOPF, United Kingdom)Carlos Gil Villar (MMA, Spain)ivCONTENTSPage1 Introduction 12 Pre-sp
14、ill planning 32.1 Preparation of oil spill sensitivity maps . . . 42.2 Developing a plan for assessment and restoration ofenvironmental damage following oil spills 42.3 Integration with oil spill response contingency plan(s) andassigning institutional responsibilities . . . . 42.4 Establishing a fun
15、ding mechanism to respond to oil spillsand assess and restore impacted environments . . . . 52.5 Review of relevant legislation . 52.6 Pre-spill training and simulations . 62.7 Identification of high risk areas and resources . 62.8 Baseline data on priority areas . 73 Assessment of environmental dam
16、age 93.1 Introduction 93.2 Oil fate and distribution . 113.3 Biological data collection in the early stages of the oil spill 173.4 Sensitivity and vulnerability to oil . 183.5 Prioritizing assessment studies . 213.6 Designing and initiating damage assessment studies 224 Restoration measures . 304.1
17、Criteria for restoration: a field approach . 314.2 Restoration: successful examples . 384.3 Indirect restoration: ecological and biological control 394.4 Net environmental benefit analysis . 444.5 Scaling restoration through economic valuationand transference of services . .45vPage5 Compensation for
18、 environmental damage from oil spills 475.1 The International Oil Pollution Compensation Conventions 475.2 Monetary valuation of the environment . . 506 Case studies 506.1 Haven, Italy, 1991 516.2 North Cape, United States, 1996 . 546.3 Sea Empress, United Kingdom, 1996 . . . . 566.4 Kuroshima, Unit
19、ed States, 1997 596.5 Estrella Pampeana, Argentina, 1999 . 617 Glossary of terms and definitions 63Annex 1 A summary of the impact of oil on natural resources . 67Annex 2 Taking samples for hydrocarbon analysis 83Annex 3 Hydrocarbon analysis 87Annex 4 Selection and establishment of sites for surveya
20、nd sampling. . . 93Annex 5 Further reading . 95viContents1 IntroductionFollowing large oil spills, immediate impacts on the marine environment andcoastal resources are often severe and in some cases catastrophic. However,oil spills are often relatively short duration events followed by rapidweatheri
21、ng and longer term degradation of the oil by natural processes.Medium-term and long-term impacts of oil spills can often be more difficult todiscern, particularly given the high natural variability that exists in most marineecosystems. In many cases natural recovery*of a contaminated environmentcan
22、result in no detectable long-term impacts, while in other cases effectsassociated with an oil spill may be observable for many years.The general public has a high and increasing interest and concern for marineand coastal habitats and wildlife, while environmental scientists consistentlyhighlight the
23、 need for more information to help them understand the effectsof oil spills on those resources. International and national law incorporate anumber of rights and obligations on States for protection, conservation andsustainable development of the marine and coastal environment, habitats andmarine liv
24、ing resources. In this context, government agencies may propose orimplement control and monitoring programmes following an oil spill that theyjudge are necessary for the response, and to gather relevant informationabout the spill to assess the resultant damage.There are three primary purposes for a
25、Government to conduct a damageassessment programme subsequent to a significant oil pollution incident:. to determine the extent and severity of ecological impact;. to provide detailed information upon which to develop andimplement a restorationprogramme and base claims; and. to inform the public, pa
26、rticularly those in the affected area, in atransparent and accurate manner, of the extent of environmentaldamage.*Italicised text indicates a technical term that is described in the glossary (see section 7).Recovery is the natural process through which ecosystems return to their original functionsan
27、d to similar structural conditions, even though the species composition may differ from theoriginal.For the scope of this manual the term restoration will be used rather than reinstatement, asthis refers to the general management measures that are employed to accelerate naturalrecovery. Because of t
28、his, restoration is more frequently used and better understood thanreinstatement and therefore more suitable for the “technical” aim of the manual.Nevertheless it is important to stress that the two terms carry very different meanings whendealing with admissible measures and compensations (see secti
29、on 5). Reinstatement is theterm used in the Claims Manual by the International Oil Pollution Compensation Fund(IOPCF).1The scope and objectives of post-spill studies will vary widely to reflect theroles and focus of the specific response and environmental agencies involved.The need to provide guidan
30、ce about the type of monitoring required, damageassessment methodologies and restoration techniques has been widelyrecognized.The aim of this manual is therefore to provide guidance on strategies that maybe used to assess the damage and subsequent recovery of the environmentresulting from marine pol
31、lution incidents. Available techniques are consideredtogether with criteria to help judge the feasibility of such measures to bringabout successful recovery of those environments. Some case studies havebeen included to illustrate the types of investigation that have beenundertaken following spills a
32、nd offer options that could be used to promotethe restoration of the impacted environment. The manual is primarily intendedfor the following:. Senior managers in government agencies responsible for initiatinga damage assessment who need to understand the scale andcosts of the studies and any restora
33、tion, the likely limitations ofthose studies and restoration actions, the relevant legislation andthe criteria for compensation;. Project managers in government agencies responsible forprioritizing damage assessment studies, preparing the scope ofwork for each study (initiating the study and interpr
34、eting theresults) who need to understand the value of early reconnaissancework and baseline data, the factors to consider when selectingand scoping appropriate studies, and the likely limitations of thosestudies; and. Scientists and environmental contractors responsible for carryingout damage assess
35、ment studies who should already be familiarwith standard technical operating procedures for surveying andanalysing the natural resources they are studying (which aretherefore not included in this manual), but who also need tounderstand the typical sensitivities of those resources to oil, thesurvey s
36、trategies that have been shown to be appropriate fordetecting damage, any potential indicators of oil impact and othermethodological guidance that may be particularly important in oilspill studies.The manual makes a basic analysis of the international regime that providescompensation for pollution d
37、amage caused by tankers: i.e. the 1992 CivilLiability Convention (CLC 92), the 1992 Fund Convention (Fund 92) and the2003 Supplementary Fund Protocol. It also mentions the 2001 International2IMO/UNEP Guidance ManualConvention on Civil Liability for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage. In particular,the manu
38、al addresses the aspect of damage assessment to non-economicresources*and describes criteria for restoration measures that may besupported through the international compensation regime. The manual doesnot address studies that may be required to evaluate effects on otherresources such as commercial f
39、isheries, mariculture or tourism. Somereference is also given to damage assessment methods and restorationmeasures that are used in some countries that may be considered useful, butwhich are not eligible for compensation under the international regime.2 Pre-spill planningIt may be advisable to prepa
40、re for the occurrence of a spill by undertakingcertain pre-spill planning measures. Such measures can streamline assessmentefforts by improving scientific understanding of potentially affected resourcesand addressing important administrative issues in advance of an incident. Thecosts of pre-spill pl
41、anning measures are not reimbursed under theinternational compensation regime, but they may help to support the validityof post-spill studies.This chapter summarizes important pre-spill measures. Existing contingencyplans may already include some of these measures, but they should bereviewed to ensu
42、re that they are adequate for the purposes of a potentialdamage assessment:. prepare maps of resources that are sensitive to oil spills;. develop a plan for assessment and restoration of environmentaldamage following oil spills;. integrate the plan into relevant oil spill response contingency plan(s
43、)and assign institutional responsibilities;. consider establishing a funding mechanism to respond to oil spillsand assess and restore impacted environments;. review relevant legislation;. carry out pre-spill training and simulations, as needed;. identify high risk areas and resources; and. collect a
44、nd collate baseline data on priority areas.*Non-economic resources: any natural resource that is not characterized by a commercialvalue.3Section 22.1 Preparation of oil spill sensitivity mapsOil spill sensitivity maps should be an essential element of a national oil spillcontingency plan and will al
45、so provide a valuable basis from which to plan anoil spill damage assessment. The maps should show the locations of thedifferent coastal and nearshore resources and indicate environmentallysensitive areas. A number of guidance documents are available.*2.2 Developing a plan for assessment and restora
46、tion of environmentaldamage following oil spillsGovernments should develop a plan for assessment and restoration ofenvironmental damage following marine oil spills which can be used in thepreparedness phase and be readily implemented when there is a major oilspill. It should indicate immediate and l
47、onger term assessment actions, datacollection protocols, sampling methodologies, standard operating proce-dures, laboratory analysis, etc. This manual aims to provide generic advice toassist the development of such a plan.Various national and internationalagencies have developed comprehensivemethods
48、 for environmental damage assessment, some of which have becomestandard procedures that are now used internationally. However, Governmentsthat have ratified the CLC 92 and Fund 92 Conventions wishing to base theirdamage assessment plans on another countrys model should appreciate thatsome methodolog
49、ies will not be eligible for compensation under theinternational compensation regime. More details are given in sections 4 and 5.2.3 Integration with oil spill response contingency plan(s) and assigninginstitutional responsibilitiesTo avoid confusion in the event of a spill, it is important that the assessmentplan is integrated into relevant existing oil spill contingency plans. Mostimportantly, all institutions and entities involved in response, assessment andrestoration activities should be identified and
