1、 Provided by IHSNot for Resale-,-,-NASA CR-1285 POTENTIAL STRUCTURAL MATERIALS AND DESIGN CONCEPTS FOR LIGHT AIRCRAFT Distribution of this report is provided in the interest of information exchange. Responsibility for the contents resides in the author or organization that prepared it. Prepared unde
2、r Contract No. NAS 2-4423 by SAN DIEGO AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING, INC. San Diego, Calif. for NASA Headquarters Mission Analysis Division Moffett Field, Calif. NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION For sale by the Clearinghouse for Federal Scientific and Technical Information Springfield, Virginia
3、 22151 - CFSTI price $3.00 Provided by IHSNot for Resale-,-,-Provided by IHSNot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHSPREFACE a NASA ai rcraf usef u I San Diego Aircraft Engineering, Inc., was responsible for conducting study of potential structural materials and
4、design concepts for light t, and to summarize the results of the study in a report which would be in guiding future structural designs of this class of aircraft. These tasks were performed under contract NAS 2-4423 for NASAs Mission Analysis Division located at Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, C
5、alifornia. Ladislao Pazmany, Chief Design Engineer of San Diego Aircraft En- gineering, managed the study program. He reporf-ed directly to Mr. G.D. Mc- Vicker, Chief Engineer and Executive Vice President of San Diego Aircraft Engineering, and to Mr. Frank Fink, President of the company. Assisting h
6、im were the following staff members: T.L. Gal many objectives of Aerodynamics: Design powered helicopters cost between $60.00 and $75.00 per pound empty; and (3) that the cost per pound empty of helicopters is apparently - not a function of empty weight. (1) that reciprocating engine powered CONSUME
7、R PRICE PER POUND (EMPTY) VS EMPTY WEIGHT $/kg $/lb (1967 General Aviation He1 icopters) 80 70 60 50 40 30 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 Ib 20 900 EMPTY WEIGHT 400 500 600 700 800 kg Figure 5 The cost per pound of empty weight for most of the light airplanes in U.S. production is plotted against empty we
8、ight in Figure 6; it varies from about $8.00/lb to about $27,00/lb. The cost per pound of empty weight of most of the light airplanes in U.S. production is plotted against maximum speed in Figure 7. The cost varies from about $6.00/lb at 115 mph. to $27.00/Ib at 300 mph, The cost per pound of airfra
9、me planes in U.S. production is plotted aga The cost per pound of airframe planes in U.S. production is plotted aga varies from $3.90/lb to $9.25/1b. for some representative light air- nst empty weight in Figure 8. for some representative light air- nst maximum speed in Figure 9. It 8 Provided by IH
10、SNot for Resale-,-,-CONSUMER PRICE PER POUND OF EMPTY WEIGHT VS EMPTY WEIGHT 60 50 40 30 20 10 0- - - - - - T 60 50 40 30 20 10 0- 1 - - - - - - 1 0 5000 lb I I 1000 2000 kg Figure 6 $/lb. LL 0 z 3 0 a_ rT W n a W 0 fL a - CONSUMER PRICE PER POUND OF EMPTY WEIGHTVS MAXIMUM SPEED 100 200 MAXIMUM SPEE
11、D IO0 200 300 400 km/ h r Figure 7 1. 2. 4. 3. 5. 6. BEECH BARON C55 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. BEECH MUSKETEER CUSTOM Ill 13. EEEM MISKETEER SWRT Ill 14. BEECH WSKETEER SUPER Ill 15. BEECH TRAVEL AIR 095A 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. BELLANCA 260C EELLANCA VIKING 300 CESSNA
12、 401 CESSNA 150 CESSNA 172 CESSNA 182 CESSNA 210 CESSNA SUPER SKYMASTER CESSNA 3lOL CESSNA SKYNIGHT CHAWlON 7ECA CHAWION 7WA-A HELIO COURIER HELIO SUPER COURIER LAKE LA-4 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 31. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. MAULE M-4JETASEN MAULE M-4RCCKET MX)NEY MASTER WNEY MARK 21 NOONEY SU
13、PER 21 WNEY EXECLITIVE 21 MX)NEY MUSTANG NAVlMI MOOEL H BOLKOW JUNIOR PIPER PA 18 PIPER CHEROKEE 140 PIPER CHEROKEE 150 PIPER CHEROKEE 160 PIPER CHEROKEE CIS0 PIPER CHEROKEE 2358 46. PIPER CHEROKEE SIX 47. PIPER CHEROKEE 300-SIX 48. PIPER COMANCHE E 49. PIPER TWIN COMANCHE B 50. PIPER AZTEC C 51. PI
14、PER NAVAJO 52. TURBO TWIN COMANCHE 8 53. PIPER TUREW AZTEC C 54. PlPER TUURBO NAVAJO 55. RILEY TUURBO ROCKET 56. WACO TS250 57. WACO S220 58. WREN 460 I mph 9 Provided by IHSNot for Resale-,-,-$/ kg 20.00 18.00 16.00 34.00 12.00 10.00 8.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 0 $/ kg 20.00 18.00 16.00 14.00 12.00 10.00 8
15、.00 6.00 4.00 2.00 0 UNIT AIRFRAME COST VS WEIGHT EMPTY $/lb. (Light-single engine airplanes - 1967) 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Ib I I I 0 500 1000 kg Figure 8 $/lb. 10.00 9.00 8.00 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1 .oo 0 UNIT AIRFRAME COST VS AIR SPEED (Light-single engine airplanes - 1967) 1 I I
16、 I 0 100 200 300 km/hr. Figure 9 10 Provided by IHSNot for Resale-,-,-Cost by Component Based on manufacturers suggested retail prices and on catalog whole- sale prices, the airframe (structure) cost of the various main components of a typical light airplane has been determined. Figure 10 illustrate
17、s the cost Der pound of structure for: the wing, tail group, fuselage, and landing gear. TYPICAL COST OF STRUCTURE (in dollars per pound) (-3 From Suggested Retail Price (Parts Lists) From Estimations Based on Wholesale Cata I ogs Te I econs Figure 10 11 Provided by IHSNot for Resale-,-,-Cost Breakd
18、own The cost of a typical four-place airplane Capproximately $17,000) is broken down both by dollar and by precentage of the total cost in Table I. The airframe fabrication cost represents approximately 36% of the consumer price. Dividing the airframe fabrication cost by its AMPR (*I, or airframe we
19、ight, yields a unit airframe cost of $6.75 per pound. TABLE I COST BREAKDOWN OF A TYPICAL LIGHT AIRPLANE Percent Tota I Do I I ars I tern Direct Labor - 630 hours ( $2.70/hr) Overhead (130% of $1,700.00) Material - Airframe Equ i pment ($2420 Eng i ne; $375 Prop. ; $13G5 Other 1 Su b-Tota I Direct,
20、Sales, and General Administrative Expenses (32% of $8,775.00) Sub-Total (Manufacturing Cost) Factory Prof it ( 10% of $1 1,585.00) Total Dealers Cost Distributor and Dealer Mark-up (33% of $12,744.00) Tota I Cost -to Customer AIRFRAME FABRICATION COST ANALYS (80% of $2,210 f $2,8 Ai rf rame Labor (8
21、0% of Di rect Labor) Airframe share of Overhead Raw Materia I s Airframe Fabrication Cost * AMPR Weight is assumed to be 910 pounds. Unit Airframe Cost: $ 6,140.00 = $ 6.75/1b 910 Ibs $ 1,700.00 10.0 2,2 10.00 13.0 765.00 4.5 4,100.00 24.2 $ 8,775.00 51.7 2,8 10.00 16.5 $ 11,585.00 68.2 1,159.00 6.8
22、 $ 12,744.00 75.0 4,256 .OO 25.0 $ 17,000.00 100.0 S $ 1,360.00 4,015.00 765.00 $ 6,140.00 * AMPR weight includes Empty Weight less the following items: wheels, brakes and tires, engine (incl. carb. air box), starter, propel ler and spinner, instruments, navigation equipment, battery and generator,
23、electronics, cabin heat and vent. Figure 11 illustrates this same breakdown. It should be noted that, although airframe labor and raw material represent only 12.5% of the consumer price of typical four-place, single-engine airplanes, this has a much farther- reaching effect on the total price of the
24、 airplane; i.e., dealers mark-up, manufacturers mark-up, and overall burden (the sum of which represents 61.3% of total price) are all functions of airframe cost. These effects are described quantitatively in the next paragraphs. 12 Provided by IHSNot for Resale-,-,-DEALER MARKUP MANUFACTURERS MARKU
25、P BURDEN, G IO. l0.d 1O.L io. I 10.5 IO.: 10.5 io.; 10.; IO. i io.: i0.c Io.: IO. I 10.; IO. IO IO. IO. 6.5 6. I 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.4 5.5 6.4 2.5 2.5 28 2.5 28 - er x .065 I W - B -. n3 - 84 !R3 !83 83 96 86 77 00 00 02 )96 )96 198 01 01 02 01 00 198 IO1 IO1 I02 )98 IO1 )98 197 197 197 164 14
26、8 167 164 166 165 165 165 i 6C I74 16C 367 36i 37c 365 D7t _. 31 I 0.75 I .28 0.65 0.66 0.86 0.53 0.60 0.54 0.65 0.71 0.71 0.97 1.12 0.44 I .39 i .42 I .49 0.70 II aterial cost I - iTQ - 1.10 i .20 3.06 4.33 5.73 3.65 75 (70 90 (70 0 0 Characteristics Tensi - - 3r Sheet t = .i25“ for Extrusion ON P
27、= Potential Estimated t = .050“ Minimum Thickness ( 1 = 1982 Estlmate Solution Heat Treated and Aged Low Cost, Weldable High Strength, Weldable High Strength, Weldable Ultra High Strength, Weldable Ultra High Strength, Weldable Corrosion Resistant, Weldable Ultra High Strength, Corrosior Resistant C
28、ommon use, Good Strength/Wgt. Low Cost,High Energy Absorb. We I dabi e Weldable, Low Cost High Welding Efficiency Low Cost, Corr.Resi st,Wei dab1 e Formable, High Energy Absort Weldable, Low Distortion High Strength/Weight High StrengthIWeight Low Cost, Heavy Extrusions Common use, Gmd Str./Weight L
29、ow Cost, High Energy Absorb. Low Cost, Corr.Res ist.,Weldab le Formable, High Energy Absorb. High StrengthIWeight Stress Corrosion Resistant High StrengthIWelght Low Cost, Corr.Resist. Weldabl Formable, High Energy Absorb Common use High Forgeability, Low Cost Low Cost, Comnon use Premium Type High
30、strength High StiffIWt. Weld. Low Dens. Low Density Good StrengthIWeight. Weldabif iigh StiffIWt. Weld. Low Dens. Good Stren th1Weight 4.1t 2.1( 2.1 2.4 1.5 2.9t 21. 10 5.1 5.1 3. 6.1 . 191 . 181 .341 ,641 .701 1.4 1.81 I .4 I .5 1.4 I W LE - i;l - .070 .048 .060 c .070 ,070 .070 .070 .070 ( .071 ,0
31、51 .076 ,073 .Ob5 ,073 .071 .051 .076 .073 ,065 ,073 .071 .051 .076 ,073 .065 .073 ,040 .039 .043 ,049 .043 .022 ,025 ,016 .Ol8 .015 face qrain LTERIAL COST I LB - D- - 0.63 6410.65 OO(2.00 OO(i.00 OO(1.00 , OO(2.00 oo(2.00 3.15 IO( 10.00 10 (1.00 .OO( 1.00 ,oo (2.00 IO( 10 .oo IO (1 .oo . OO( 1 .oo
32、 . OO( 2.00 )O( 10.00 10 (1.00 .001.00 .oo 12.00 0.90 0.46 1.90 5.10 5.00 5.80 6.60 2. IO 0.52 0.67 2.06 2.12 2.05 CHARACTERISTICS orrosion Resistant, Formabl ow Density, Formable igh Strength b Stiff/Welght Corroslon Resistant Formab I e High Strength/Weighi t ow Curing Temp., Formable High Strengt
33、h/Welghi Low Density Corrosion Resistant t High Strength/Weighl Low Density Corrosion Resistant High Strengt h/Wei g hi Low Density Corrosion Resistant Low Density Formable LOW oensity 1 Presently used in some light aircraft Gwd Strength/Weight Stabillzed Wood pL I CHARACTER1 ST ICs FtU - w _. 10-3
34、- - 28 6 418 750 643 1210 1340 i 980 700 1970 1870 1970 2880 1230 2880 279 114 230 243 27 1 243 1295 1175 1275 1825 847 1825 95 187 221 450 465 600 603 638 606 626 307 230 340 900 760 7 Ft“ I/LB 0 10-3 - - 454 81 (643 IO (38( I1 1641 l5(1211 35 177( I5 199( 223 197) 1870) 1970) 14401 105 407 1 I6 88
35、 93 104 92 303 1170 935 149 109 166 - f% - w - 10-3 - _. 20 21 46 26 32 29 35 23 81 77 35 38 33 42 Ii 11 14 16 20 54 54 74 68 79 39 45 48 43 46 - II f% - 0- WLB - io-3 32 3 (22) 2 (24) 3 (26) 6 (321 7 114) 9 (18) 7 (8) 177) (35) (19) 12 24 7 3 4 9 8 35 131 118 19 21 23 1 7 - w - lo-; - - 18 21 33 21
36、 25 23 26 20 45 49 25 27 25 29 14 14 16 18 21 38 46 48 - 1 3% - I/LI lo-: _. - 0 - 29 3 (3 8 Ill 1 (2 2 (2 6 I1 6 (I 6 (5) (49) (25) (14) 16 31 9 3 4 18 22 23 - 1 9EF - - - 2 3 4 5 5 16 16 19,: 19.3 19 19 19 19 19.3 19.3 19 19 19 19 19, 19,: 19 19 19 19 20 21 22 23 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24 - IE
37、F . - 25 25 25 25 25 - NOTES: ESTIMATED N = NEAR TEGM 0 ( 1 = 1982 ESTIMTE PARALLEL TO GRAIN RESIN P ij POTENTIAL MIL mBK 17 material properties were used I“ this table If available. Otherwise, manufacturers published data were used. 19 Provided by IHSNot for Resale-,-,-pheric corrosion, low-quench
38、sensitivity, loading intensity, and accepted usage in present-day aircraft, also influenced the choosing of candidates. Metallic material condidates are listed in Table IV, together with their structural ef- ficiencies. Non-metallic material candidates are Dresented in Table V in a similar manner. c
39、iency of materials by decreasing order of magnitude. Metallic Materials (Ref. Table Iv) Figures 13, 14, and 15 list the comparative structural effi- TUBING - Two steels and one aluminum alloy were selected as tubing can- didates. While the 6061-T6 aluminum alloy is superior from the standpoint of st
40、ructural efficiencies, 1025 steel is still being used today in areas where low cost and ease of welding so dictate. The 4130 normalized steel tubing is used where column loading intensities are moderate-to-high and size limitations are present. The most likely areas of application for tubing are fus
41、elage weldments and engine mounts, BAR MATERIAL - Candidates are listed with the intent of showing mate- rials of high strength for use in areas of landing-gear assemblies, rotor mechanisms, and primary structural fittings having space limitations. Although there are many types of high-strength mate
42、rials available, the selection repre- sents the lower and upper end of the chrome-al ioy series (4130 and 43401, and also includes one of the newer types of maraging steels, 25 Ni, This steel, although 1.8 times as strong as 4130 (180 H.T.), is also seventeen times as costly ($2.25/1b vs. $0.13/lb).
43、 It is a high-quality steel with superior corrosion resistance and toughness over the commonly-used chrome-alloy series. FORGINGS are occasionally used in helicopters and light aircraft. When used, 2014-T6 is the primary forging alloy, especially for miscellaneous low- stressed fittings where econom
44、y and increased corrosion performance predominate. SHEET - A number of sheet materials are available for use in the con- struction of light aircraft and helicopters. Sheet stock is used mainly as a covering for the airframe. It is also bent and formed into frames, ribs, stringers, stiffeners, and va
45、rious types of brackets. The 2024-T3 alloy, especially the clad version, is by far the most com- monly-used skin covering on present-day light aircraft. In addition to having high structural efficiencies, it is a good corrosion-resistant candidate, ex- hibiting superior qualities of fatigue, energy
46、absorption, and formability when compared to most of the other sheet materials. The 5XXX series aluminum sheet material is included because of its low- cost structural efficiencies. It also has good formability. Type 6061-T6 is next in importance to 2024-T3 clad as a material candi- date. Its low cost, coupled with its high corrosion resistance and high stress corrosion resistance, formability, and energy absorption characteristics, makes it extremely attractive. 20 Provided by IHSNot for Resale-,-,-
