1、SURFACEVEHICLEINFORMATIONREPORTJ411 JAN2015Issued 1948-02Revised 2015-01Superseding J411 SEP1997Carbon and Alloy SteelsRATIONALEA five year review was completed and the document references were updated.1. SCOPEThis SAE Information Report describes the processing and fabrication of carbon and alloy s
2、teels. The basic steelmaking process including iron ore reduction, the uses of fluxes, and the various melting furnaces are briefly described. The various types of steels: killed, rimmed, semikilled, and capped are described in terms of their melting and microstructural differences and their end pro
3、duct use. This document also provides a list of the commonly specified elements used to alloy elemental iron into steel. Each elements structural benefits and effects are also included. A list of the AISI Steel Products Manuals is included and describes the various finished shapes in which steel is
4、produced.2. REFERENCES2.1 Applicable PublicationsThe following publications form a part of this specification to the extent specified herein. Unless otherwise indicated, the latest issue of SAE publications shall apply.2.1.1 AIST: Steel Reference ManualsAvailable from Association for Iron and Steel
5、Technology, 186 Thorn Hill Road, Warrendale, PA 15086, Tel: 724-776-6040, www.aist.org.xBar Steel: Alloy, Carbon, and Microalloy Steels: Semifinished, Hot-Rolled Bars, Cold Finished Bars, Hot-Rolled Deformed and Plain Concrete Reinforcing BarsxPlates and Rolled Floor Plates: Carbon, High-Strength Lo
6、w-Alloy and AlloyxCarbon Steel Pipe, Structural Tubing, Line Pipe, Oil Country Tubular GoodsxSheet Steel: Carbon, High-Strength Low Alloy, and Alloy: Coils and Cut Lengths (Including Coated Products)xStrip Steel: Carbon, High-Strength Low Alloy, and Alloy_SAE Technical Standards Board Rules provide
7、that: “This report is published by SAE to advance the state of technical and engineering sciences. The use of this report is entirely voluntary, and its applicability and suitability for any particular use, including any patent infringement arising therefrom, is the sole responsibility of the user.”
8、SAE reviews each technical report at least every five years at which time it may be revised, reaffirmed, stabilized, or cancelled. SAE invites your written comments and suggestions.Copyright 2015 SAE InternationalAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retriev
9、al system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of SAE.TO PLACE A DOCUMENT ORDER: Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada)Tel: +1 724-776-4970 (outside USA)Fax: 724-776-0790Email: CustomerServ
10、icesae.orgSAE WEB ADDRESS: http:/www.sae.orgSAE values your input. To provide feedbackon this Technical Report, please visithttp:/www.sae.org/technical/standards/J411_201501SAE J411 Revised JAN2015 Page 2 of 9xTin Mill ProductsxCarbon Steel, Wire and RodsxCold Rolled Flat Steel WirexRailway Track Ma
11、terialxStainless and Heat Resisting SteelsxTool SteelsxSteel Specialty Tubular ProductsxHot-Rolled Structural Shapes, H-Piles and Sheet Piling3. STEELSteel is a malleable alloy of iron and carbon that has been made molten in the process of manufacture and contains approximately 0.05 to 2.0% carbon,
12、as well as some manganese and sometimes other alloying elements.3.1 Carbon SteelSteel is considered to be carbon steel when no minimum content is specified or required for aluminum, chromium, cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, or zirconium, or any other element adde
13、d to obtain a desired alloying effect: when the specified minimum for copper does not exceed 0.40%; or when the maximum content specified for any of the following elements does not exceed the following percentage: manganese, 1.65%; silicon, 0.60%; copper, 0.60%. For fine grain carbon steels, minimum
14、 or maximum levels of grain refiners (Al, Cb, V) can be specified. Boron may be added to killed fine grain carbon steel to improve hardenability.In all carbon steels, small quantities of certain residual elements, such as copper, nickel, molybdenum, chromium, etc., are unavoidably retained from raw
15、materials. Those elements are considered detrimental for special applications, the maximum acceptable content of these incidental elements should be specified by the purchaser.3.2 Alloy SteelSteel is considered to be alloy steel when the maximum of the range given for the content of alloying element
16、s exceeds one or more of the following limits: manganese, 1.65%; silicon, 0.60%; copper, 0.60%; or in which a definite range or definite minimum quantity for any of the following elements is specified or required within the limits of the recognized field of constructional alloy steels: aluminum and
17、chromium up to 3.99%: cobalt, columbium, molybdenum, nickel, titanium, tungsten, vanadium, zirconium, or any other alloying element added to obtain a desired alloying effect.4. STEELMAKING PROCESSESThese fall into two general groups: acid or basic, according to the character of the furnace lining. T
18、hus electric processesmay be either acid or basic. Basic oxygen, as the name implies, is an exclusively basic process. The choice of an acid or basic furnace is usually determined mainly by the phosphorus in the available raw materials and the content of phosphorus permissible in the finished steel.
19、SAE J411 Revised JAN2015 Page 3 of 9Phosphorus is an acid-forming element and, in its oxide form, will react with any suitable base to form a slag in the steelmaking furnace. In basic processes, the metallurgist and steelmaker take advantage of this chemical behavior by oxidizing the phosphorus with
20、 iron oxide, which yields up its oxygen to the phosphorus. This permits the iron to remain as part of the steelmaking bath, while the acid phosphoric oxide is separated by floating up into the molten basic lime slag. In acid processes, furnaces are generally lined with silica, which is acid in natur
21、e and will not tolerate the use of basic materials for fluxes. Since an acid slag has no affinity for impurities such as phosphorus, the steel cannot be dephosphorized by fluxing and the content of this element remains at the level contained in the raw material, or may be concentrated somewhat in th
22、e finished steel due to loss of other materials from the original metallic charge.Most iron ores in the United States are of a phosphorus content suitable only for basic steelmaking processes: hence, all of the nations wrought steel is so made. The following are the principal steelmaking processes u
23、sed in the United States:4.1 Basic ElectricThe principal advantage of this process is optional control in the furnace permitting steel to be treated under oxidizing, reducing, or neutral slags, and pouring off and replacement of slags during the process. In this manner, and depending on specified re
24、quirements, objectionable elements may be substantially reduced and a high degree of refinement obtained in the steel bath. Practically all grades of steel can be made by the basic electric furnace, and the process with or without supplementary processes is used for producing SAE Wrought stainless s
25、teels.4.2 Basic OxygenThe prime advantage of this process is the rate at which steel can be produced. The nature of the process is such that large quantities of molten iron must be readily available, since refining is accomplished by the exothermic reactions of high purity oxygen with the various el
26、ements contained in the molten iron.4.3 Ladle RefiningToday the majority of steels are actually refined to final chemistry and cleanliness requirements in a ladle refining facility. This facility takes the ladle of steel which was tapped from the electric arc furnace (EAF) or basic oxygen furnace (B
27、OF), and through the use of the ladle as a vessel further refines the steel. Through the use of optional electric arc reheating capability, inert gas stirring, and optional degassing capabilities; the ladle of steel is trimmed to the final chemistry requirements and inclusions are removed for cleane
28、r steel. The ladle refining station is the facility which actually makes the specific grade of steel to the customers specification.4.4 OtherAnother method increasing in use in the production of stainless, tool, and specialty steels is ESR (electroslag refining). Inthis process, as-cast electric fur
29、nace melted electrodes are progressively melted and solidified in a water cooled copper mold under a blanket of molten flux. Melting results from the heat generated by the resistance of the molten flux to electric current passing between the electrode and the solidifying ingot. Refining occurs as th
30、e electrode melts and droplets of molten metal pass through the flux and their impurities are removed by reaction with the flux. The progressively solidified ingot thus produced is very homogeneous and sound, and may be directly processed into mill products.The AOD (argon oxygen decarburization) pro
31、cess has become an important steel refining system for specialty steel grades. Originally employed to replace electric furnace basic slag practice for stainless steels, it is now refining alloy, tool, silicon-iron, electrical, and other specialties. The AOD system refining vessel simply accepts molt
32、en iron from whatever source is available, that is, electric furnace, BOF, blast furnace or cupola and completes all chemical and refining stages.The process is based on the principle that when argon gas is mixed with oxygen and injected into the melt, the inert gas dilutes the carbon monoxide resul
33、ting from the oxidation of carbon and reduces its partial pressure. This shifts the reaction equilibrium to favor the oxidation of carbon over other oxidizable metals such as chromium. As a result, a higher chromium content can be charged in the melt allowing the conservation of ferrochromium and ma
34、king this attractive in the economic production of stainless steel.AOD melting also allows control of hydrogen in flake sensitive grades to the point that the need for long anneals is eliminated.SAE J411 Revised JAN2015 Page 4 of 94.5 Vacuum TreatmentThe use of vacuum treatment can be employed with
35、electric furnace, BOF, and ladle metallurgy furnace steelmaking, and is adaptable to all grades of carbon and alloy steel.There are two types of treatments commonly used. The first is simply “vacuum degassing” the steel to remove hydrogen gas and avoid the necessity for long slow cooling cycles for
36、heavy sections such as blooms, billets, and slabs. The reduced hydrogen content provides steel with improved internal soundness and resistance to internal rupturing or “flaking.” The second treatment is infrequently utilized since the advent of ladle metallurgy facilities. It is referred to as “vacu
37、um carbon deoxidation” (VCD). While this process will also remove hydrogen from the liquid steel, it serves the added purpose of deoxiding the steel. These steels exhibit improved cleanliness compared with conventional product.In todays modern steelmaking practices, the steel cleanliness is usually
38、achieved in the ladle metallurgy treatment, and VCD treatments are not frequently used. During the ladle metallurgy treatment, the liquid steel is constantly being stirred via argon gas or induction stirring. This induces the liquid steel to have contact with the artificial slag cover on the ladle,
39、the artificial slag captures the inclusions in the steel and prevents them from reentering the molten steel.4.6 Strand CastingThis process involves the direct casting of steel from the ladle into slabs, blooms, or billets. In strand casting, a heat of steel is tapped into ladle in the conventional m
40、anner. The liquid steel is then teemed into a tundish, which acts as a reservoir to provide for a controlled casting rate. The steel flows from the tundish into the casting machine and rapid solidification begins in the open-ended water cooled copper molds. The partially solidified slab, bloom, or b
41、illet is continuously extracted from the mold by an up and down oscillating movement of the mold. Solidification is completed by cooling the moving cast shape through a water cooling spray system. Several strands may be cast simultaneously, depending on the heat size and section size. A reduction in
42、 size may be carried out by hot working the product prior to cutting the standard into lengths. Chemical segregation is minimized, due to the rapid solidification rate of the strand castproduct.Good casting practice should include measures to protect the molten steel from reoxidation (exposure to ai
43、r). Thesemeasures include, but are not limited to, ladle to tundish shrouding, artificial tundish slag, tundish to mold shrouding, andmold powder. The shrouding technique can employ ceramic shrouds, gaseous shrouds or some combination of both.When two or more heats of steel are cast without interrup
44、tion, the process is called continuous casting or sequence casting.Some strand casting machines can incorporate electromagnetic stirring (EMS) in the molds and/or below the molds. The EMS stirs the molten steel within the solidified shell. Also below the mold or prior to complete solidification soft
45、 or hard reduction of the strand can be employed. These steps help to improve as-cast center quality, reduce segregation, and promote the formation of an equiaxed grain zone.The process of strand casting steel has become the predominant process for the manufacture of steel products. This is due to t
46、he advances in the technology of strand casting both from a production aspect and material quality aspect. The quality of strand cast material has become at least equivalent, and in many cases better than the traditional ingot casting process.4.7 Ingot CastingThis process has been designed to meet a
47、 variety of conditions of manufacture. Ingots are usually cast as square or rectangular in cross section with rounded corners. Occasionally they are cast in round cross sections. They are usually tapered and cast big end up and hot topped. Ingot steel is subject to internal variations in chemical co
48、mposition and structure due to the natural phenomena which occur as the steel solidifies.SAE J411 Revised JAN2015 Page 5 of 9Shrinkage in the ingot during solidification results in the formation of a central cavity known as pipe. Primary pipe is located in the upper portion of the ingot. Under some
49、conditions, another shrinkage cavity, known as secondary pipe, may form in the ingot below but not connected with the primary pipe. Secondary pipe is normally not exposed to the air and therefore not oxidized. This allows it to be welded during hot working of the ingot, and results in no detriment to the integrity of the product. Primary pipe is controlled by the hot topping system and any remnants are cropped during the ingot
