1、Formula I Technology Peter Wright With illustrations by Tony MatthewsFormula 1 Technology I ,. Other SAE books of interest: Race Car Engineering phone (724) 776-4970; fax (724) 776-0790; e-mail: publicationssae.org.Formula 1 Technology Peter Wright Illustrations by Tony Matthews INTERNATIONAL Societ
2、y ofAutomotive Engineers, Inc. Warrendale, Pa.Illustrations and photographs byTony Matthews, unless stated otherwise in the captions. Copyright 2001 Society ofAutomotive Engineers, Inc. 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Phone: (724) 776-4841 Fax: (724) 776-5760 E-mail: publicat
3、ionsgsae.org http:/www.sae.org ISBN 0-7680-0234-6 Library ofCongress CardNumber: 00-104452. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States ofAmerica. Permission tophotocopy for internal orpersonal use, orthe internal orpersonal useofspecific clients, is grantedbySAE for libraries and otherusers r
4、egisteredwiththe Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), provided that the base fee of $.50 per page is paid directly to CCC, 222 Rosewood Dr., Danvers, MA 01923. Special requests should be addressed to the SAE Publications Group. 0-7680-0234-6/01-$.50. SAE Order No. R-230Table of Contents Ackno-lecdgment
5、s vii Foreord iX Introduction Chapter 1 The Racing Objective Chapter 2 Evole or Die 1 Chapter 3 Technolog) Trees and Systems Integration . 27 Chapter 4 The Chassis and Its Dynamics .4 Chapter 5 Engines . 57 Chapter 6 Transmissions . 75 Chapter 7 Tires .103 Chapter 8 Aerodxnamics 121 Chapter 9 Suspen
6、sion . 141 Chapter 1 Brakes . 159 Chapter 11 Measurement. Control, and Data Sstems . 169 Chapter 12 Simulation and Design Tools 3. 3 vFormula 1 Technology Chapter 13 Test Rigs 193 Chapter 14 Banned Technologies .205 Chapter 15 Safety . 227 Chapter 16 Track Testing and Racing 251 Chapter 17 The Briti
7、shMotorsport Industry . 275 Chapter 18 Formula 1 Now and in the Future .281 Chapter 19 The Technical Regulations and PolicingThem 289 AppendixA The Development ofGround Effect 299 AppendixB Carbon-Fiber Reinforced Composites 313 AppendixC Active Suspension .325 AppendixD Federation Internationale de
8、 lAutomobile 2001 FormulaOne Technical Regulations 337 AppendixE Relevant Sections ofthe Federation Internationale de lAutomobile 2001 FormulaOne Sporting Regulations 397 References . 409 Index . 411 About the Author . 437 viAcknowledgments Contributions to this book, made by individuals, come from
9、three sources: First, those people whom I have known and worked with over the years, who have inspired and taught me everything I know about cars and motor racing, andwho have enabled me to understand that which I think I understand. Second, those people who have provided technical or practical inpu
10、t to the book, explaining areas inwhichmyunderstanding is lacking, orproviding access to the normally secretive parts ofFormula 1. Finally, but not least, those peoplewho have been part ofthe actual writing, revising, editing, and publishing process. In the first category, I would include the follow
11、ing, in alphabetical order: Elio de Angelis, RichardAubrecht, RalfBellamy, Eric Broadley, ColinChapman, Dan Clarke, Peter Collins, John Davis, Gerard Ducarouge, Bernie Ecclestone, Ian Foley, Gerard Fresson, Ken Garnjost, Steve Green, John Harvey, Johnny Herbert, Frank Irving, Peter Jackson, Nigel Ma
12、nsell, RolandMagnuson, John Miles, Bill Milliken, Doug Milliken, Peter Milliken,MaxMosley, Chris Murphy, Martin Ogilvie, Alec Osborne, Tony Rudd, Terry Satchell,Ayrton Senna, Willy Southcott, Nigel Stepney,Alex Stokes, RickTownend, SidWatkins, David Williams, Conway Young, andAlex Zanardi. In the se
13、cond category, also in alphabetical order, are: Tony Best, Peter Digby, Pierre Dupasquier, Mike Endean, Patrick Head, Mario Illien, Bill Milliken, Doug Milliken, Tony Purnell, Pat Symonds, John Taube, and Jean Todt. Finally, among those in the third category is Tony Matthews, who sees race cars in a
14、 way that few others see them and whose illustrations in this book speak for themselves. Tonys patience withmy changing requests made the whole process ofillustrating this book a pleasure. Also in this category is Hannah Woolhouse whose comments, criticisms, and corrections have made this an easier
15、book to read. viiForeword Anyone interested in Formula One has endless sources of information, including specialist publications, books, television programs, and the daily press. However, none ofthese gives much idea abouthowmodem FormulaOne cars reallywork. These sources touchon various technical d
16、etails, but the overall picture remains a mystery. As a result, some of the most interesting aspects ofFormula One are lost to all but the initiates who actually work in the paddock. This book is likely to change all that. It is the first systematic explanation ofthe technical side ofmodern Grand Pr
17、ix racing. As such, it will be essential reading for any serious follower of Formula One and ofimmense help to aspiring drivers and engineers in other forms ofracing. The FIA receives letters and e-mails from all over theworldwith suggestions, comments, and criticisms. Unfortunately, most ofthese mi
18、ss the point because oflack oftechnical informa- tionandunderstanding. Thisbook is capableofprovidingwhathas beenmissing. Ithink it will have a significant impact. Max Mosley, President Federation Internationale de lAutomobile July 2000 ixIntroduction History shows that engineering (using an idea wi
19、thout necessarily understanding it) usually gets the drop on science (understanding an idea without necessarily having anyidea what to do with it). -Philip Whiteman Iam extremely fortunate to have been involved in motor racing during the last 35 years ofthe first half-century ofFormula 1. During tha
20、t time, I haveworked directly for Formula 1 teams for 22 years, and the remainder ofthe time on relevant technologies: aerodynamics, compos- ites, and closed-loop control systems. Ihave witnessed firsthand themosttechnically stimulat- ing and challenging period, and I have seen the industry grow eno
21、rmously in both size and sophistication. It has been a period during which the technology and engineering has evolved from mechanical systems-most ofwhichyou could hold in the hand, look at closely, and see how they should work, even ifyou could notalways understandwhythey didnot-to systems dominate
22、d by silicon wafers so small you hardly see them and which often cannot be totally understood by a singlehuman brain. When IjoinedBRM straightfrom university in 1967, itwas aWorldChampionship winningteam which, unusually for a British one, designed and built its own engines and transmissions. Tony R
23、udd,BRMs chiefengineerandteam manager, ledan engineering department that consistedof one engine designer, one chassis designer, and one gearbox designer, plus two draftsmen. I became theR the instantaneous centerwas always offthe board and some- times stretched to the other side ofthe drawing office
24、. In the workshops, highly skilled panel beaters wheeled magnesium skins to form the bodywork, and machinists achieved astonishing tolerances on old milling machines and jig-borers. Engine test beds were located on an old airfield several miles away, where a pair ofex-Tiger Moth, de Havilland Gipsy
25、Major engines was used to drive propellers to vent the test beds. This was the state ofthe Formula 1 art. xiFormula 1 Technology Today, Formula 1 teams suchasMcLarenorWilliams arehoused ingleaming, modern buildings andare staffedwith200 to300 persons (Fig. 0.1). The 30-person designdepartmnent is eq
26、uipped withCAD stations, feeding design information directly toCNC machining centers, sometimes servedonlyby robots. The25 engineers inR the chassis layout, suspension, and wheel and tire sizes were sometimes even derived from road cars; bodywork was more streamlined, mudguards were dispensed with,
27、and the passenger seat was discarded. A sporting driver of road cars would recognize the controls and be quite able to drive the cars. In the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, a series ofinventions and technological advances transformed Formula 1 cars such that the average motoristwould have trouble identify
28、ingmany ofthe components andprobably wouldbeunable to drive the cars, even ifhe couldwithstandthe physical forces it imposed. The performance of the cars has increased greatly and would have done so even more but for regulatory restrictions on both the type and quantity ofthe technologies permitted.
29、 This book examines what, how, andwhy this has happened during this period. xii Introduction Board of Directors r- r 3 Fhincl Drctor Marketing Director Managing Director Techncl Director Accounts Marketing RaceTeam Drawing Office (5) (3) (30) (30) Sponsor Servic TestTeam Rearch otherwise the society
30、 will tend to become disad- vantaged by the lack of it and will eventually be overwhelmed. Once something has been invented and examples exist, it becomes much easier to reinvent it independently. For example, theprocess formaking fine porcelain inEuropewas developedmore or less indepen- dentlyby Me
31、issen, Sevres,Wedgewood, and Spode, nearly athousand years afterthe Chinese had perfected it. The Europeans were assisted by having examples ofChinese porcelain to inspire them, although they did not know the formula for the clay or the details ofthe firing process. Diamond claims thatthe developmen
32、t oftechnology is an autocatalytic process; that is, it speeds up at a rate that increases with time because the process catalyzes itself. This is certainlywhathashappened inFormula 1. When active suspension requiredthe installationof servo-hydraulics and a chassis computer on the cars, numerous oth
33、er chassis control systems quickly followed, adapting the active technology andhardware. Diamonds analysis seems to be particularly relevant when considering why the British motorsport industry has been so successful. Compared to the almostformula libre ofthe early years ofFormula 1, and indeed befo
34、re that also, it is extremely regulated formula. Before the development ofwings and ground effect, there was only a perceived need to regulate engine size and weight. Performance did not escalate out ofhand, and safetywas not an issue. Motor industry, or indeed national participa- tion, was primaril
35、y on the basis ofpromoting and displaying technical supremacy. The cars resembled the low-volume, exotic road-going products of the manufacturers, and the public followingwas so small in todays terms, in the absence oftelevision, that the racing results had xivIntroduction little marketing effect on
36、 mass-produced cars. Aerodynamic downforce, wide and slick tires, turbocharging, aerospace materials, and computer-control systems added somuchperformance potential that regulation to control speeds was inevitable. Other influences, including safety awareness, costs, the sporting spectacle, andthene
37、edtomodify circuits to suittelevision, allhave contributed to the current Federation Internationale de lAutomobile (FIA) Technical Regula- tions and the way the permitted technologies have evolved. Most vehicles-whether they are road cars, trucks, civilianandmilitary aircraft, orships andspaceships-
38、competewitheachother in absolute terms, subject only to safety and environmental regulation. Their economics are an inherent competitive factor. Race cars compete in relative terms, almostunencumberedby cost constraints but with the performance technologies greatly limited by regulations. It is a so
39、me- whatunnatural environment, necessary to maintain motorsport as a contestamonghumans and one that has had a significant effect on theway it has evolved technically Only five main parameters determine the performance potential ofa race car: power, weight, tire grip (coefficientoffriction), drag, a
40、nd lift (ordownforce). Until Chaparral, greatly assisted by Chevrolet R wear rate ofthe narrow treads was a more critical factor until then. Formula 1 technology is abouthow to maximize these five parameters as much ofthe time as possible, and to enable the driver to use as much ofthem as possible a
41、ll of the time. Hundreds of technologies are involved, not merely in the makeup ofthe car and its systems but also in the means by which the components are manufactured and in the systems for testing and racing the cars. This book is about some ofthe most important ofthese technologies. Making up th
42、ese hundreds oftechnologies are thousands ofdetails that go into the design, the manufacturing, and the development processes involved. This book is not about these details because they embody the main intellectual property of the companies employing them. Formula 1 has become so competitive and the
43、 stakes have become so high that the companies involved have procedures that attempt to protect their secrets. Even if they allowed the cars to be photographed regularly with the body panels removed, littlewould be revealed because the important secrets are embedded in the fine detail of piston crow
44、n shapes, anti-friction surface coatings, dampervalving, hydraulic circuits, and software. None ofthese are ever disclosed. The cars are retained at the end ofa season in team museums or, if sold to collectors, they are stripped of their secret components. The opportunity to inspect and describe a F
45、ormula 1 car, as could be done 20 years ago, is gone. Manycompa- nies involved in Formula 1 instruct technical personnel never to discuss anything technical with either the press or people from competing companies. It is all too easy to reveal information useful to a competitor simplyby indicating a
46、n interest in a particular technology. The basic principles and fundamental technologies described inthe following chapters are not secrets. They are known and understood by most designers and engineers in Formula 1 and anyofthe major racing series. Theymaynotbeknownandunderstoodby technically oriented xv
