1、Designation: F1693 17Standard Guide forConsideration of Bioremediation as an Oil Spill ResponseMethod on Land1This standard is issued under the fixed designation F1693; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of la
2、st revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon () indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 The goal of this guide is to provide recommendationsfor the use of biodegradation enhancing agents for remediatingoil sp
3、ills in terrestrial environments.1.2 This is a general guide only, assuming the bioremedia-tion agent to be safe, effective, available, and applied inaccordance with both manufacturers recommendations andrelevant environmental regulations.As referred to in this guide,oil includes crude and refined p
4、etroleum products.1.3 This guide addresses the application of bioremediationagents alone or in conjunction with other technologies, follow-ing spills on surface terrestrial environments.1.4 This guide does not consider the ecological effects ofbioremediation agents.1.5 This guide applies to all terr
5、estrial environments.Specifically, it addresses various technological applicationsused in these environments.1.6 In making bioremediation-use decisions, appropriategovernment authorities must be consulted as required by law.1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of thesafety concerns, if
6、any, associated with its use. It is theresponsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-priate safety, health, and environmental practices and deter-mine the applicability of regulatory limitations prior to use. Inaddition, it is the responsibility of the user to ensure that suchactivi
7、ty takes place under the control and direction of aqualified person with full knowledge of any potential orappropriate safety and health protocols.1.8 This international standard was developed in accor-dance with internationally recognized principles on standard-ization established in the Decision o
8、n Principles for theDevelopment of International Standards, Guides and Recom-mendations issued by the World Trade Organization TechnicalBarriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.2. Terminology2.1 Definitions:2.1.1 aerobesorganisms that require air or free oxygen forgrowth.2.1.2 anaerobesorganisms that grow
9、in the absence of airor oxygen and do not use molecular oxygen in respiration.2.1.3 bioaugmentationthe addition of microorganisms(usually predominantly bacteria) to increase the biodegradationrate of target pollutants.2.1.4 biodegradationchemical alteration and breakdownof a substance, usually to sm
10、aller products, caused by micro-organisms or their enzymes.2.1.5 bioremediationenhancement of biodegradation.2.1.6 bioremediation agentsinorganic and organic com-pounds and microorganisms that are added to enhance degra-dation processes, predominantly microbial.2.1.7 biostimulationthe addition of mi
11、crobial nutrients,oxygen, heat, or water, or some combination thereof, toenhance the rate of biodegradation of target pollutants byindigenous species (predominantly bacteria).2.1.8 ecosystemorganisms and the surrounding environ-ment combined in a community that is self-supporting.3. Significance and
12、 Use3.1 The purpose of this guide is to provide remediationmanagers and spill response teams with guidance on bioreme-diation.3.2 Bioremediation is one of many available tools and maynot be applicable to all situations. This guide can be used inconjunction with other ASTM guides addressing oil spill
13、response operations as well as options other than bioremedia-tion.4. General Considerations for Bioremediation Use4.1 Bioremediation technologies attempt to accelerate thenatural rate of biodegradation. In situ, solid-phase, and slurry-phase represent the major bioremediation technologies used.These
14、 technologies may be unnecessary in those cases in whichthe natural rate of biodegradation suffices, such as for thinfilms. The use of adequate controls in preliminary field studies,1This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F20 on HazardousSubstances and Oil Spill Response and is the d
15、irect responsibility of SubcommitteeF20.13 on Treatment.Current edition approved Aug. 1, 2017. Published January 2018. Originallyapproved in 1996. Last previous edition approved in 2013 as F1693 13. DOI:10.1520/F1693-17.Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohoc
16、ken, PA 19428-2959. United StatesThis international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized principles on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for theDevelopment of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organiz
17、ation Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.1or the results of previously reported studies, will assist indetermining the extent to which microorganism or nutrientamendments, or both, are necessary to obtain the desired rate ofdegradation.4.2 Bioremediation performance depends on the efficienc
18、yof the petroleum hydrocarbon degrading indigenous microor-ganisms or bioaugmentation agents. Performance also dependson the availability of rate-limiting nutrients and the suscepti-bility of the target crude oil or refined product to microbialdegradation. As oil consists of hundreds or more compoun
19、ds,many of which require different conditions or different micro-organisms to degrade, oil biodegradation should not be con-sidered a single process. Oil biodegradation should at leastconsider the aliphatics separate from the aromatic compounds.Some compounds may degrade to other compounds which may
20、be toxic or less biodegradable. Other classes of compoundsoften degrade to a lesser degree, these classes include resins,asphaltenes, large aliphatics and large aromatics (1, 2)2.4.2.1 In general, aerobic bioremediation systems degrade oilmore rapidly than anaerobic systems, and adequate aerationmay
21、 be the most promising approach in many cases.4.2.2 Numerous microorganisms, represented by hundredsof species, are responsible for the degradation of the oil.Various texts describe the biodegradability and biodegradationrates of a variety of organic compounds present in oil (3, 4, 5).4.2.3 The biod
22、egradation of aliphatic and aromatic hydro-carbons in the absence of molecular oxygen is generally slowerthan under aerobic conditions. Anaerobic biodegradation hasbeen characterized under sulfate-reducing, nitrate-reducing andmethanogenic conditions (6, 7).4.3 Bioremediation must be conducted under
23、 the guidanceof qualified personnel who understand the safety and healthaspects of site activities.5. Background5.1 Approaches to bioremediation for oil spill responseinclude biostimulation, the addition of nutrients, oxygen, heat,or water, or combination thereof, to stimulate indigenousmicroorganis
24、ms, and bioaugmentation, the addition of oil-degrading microorganisms, which may be used in combinationwith biostimulation (8-17). As a precaution, it should be notedthat nutrient components may be toxic or harmful to plants,animals, and humans, and that non-indigenous species mayalter the indigenou
25、s microbial ecological balance at leasttemporarily. Indigenous microbes have been found to be moreeffective than non-indigenous microbes (14, 18). Water effluentnitrate levels, which can affect drinking water sources, shouldbe minimized to diminish risks of health issues. Similarly,excessive ammoniu
26、m levels should be avoided because theycan affect fish and invertebrates, since many are immobile andcannot avoid the treated area. Therefore, nitrogen and othernutrient levels should be monitored. Instructions to ensuresafety and effective product use should be established by themanufacturer or sup
27、plier for each commercial microbialproduct, and specific instructions should be followed by theproduct user.5.1.1 Biostimulation has been shown to enhance the biodeg-radation of terrestrial oil spills. Biostimulation uses the addi-tion of appropriate nutrients (for example, nitrogen,phosphorus, pota
28、ssium, micronutrients, and so forth), oxygen,heat, or water, which may have been limiting factors. Ifmicrobial degraders of the target oil contaminants are presentin the soil or contaminated waters, these approaches usuallylead to increases in the rate of degradation. In some cases theremay not be a
29、 sufficient indigenous oil-degrading population tostimulate. This may be the case in environments in which thedegrader population has not developed. Alternately, the toxicnature of the petroleum product may diminish or eliminatemicroorganisms. Also, the excavation of soil from anoxiczones and subseq
30、uent relocation to an oxygen-rich environ-ment may result in a lack of microbial degraders due to thedrastic change in conditions. The microbial response to bio-stimulation may include a lag period (weeks to months) for thegrowth or natural selection of degraders to occur.Microorganisms, as well as
31、oil contaminants, should be moni-tored throughout the process to establish efficacy and safety.5.1.2 Bioaugmentation may use commercial microbialproducts, on-site production of microbes from stock cultures,or laboratory isolation, characterization, and subsequent pro-duction of microbes from the par
32、ticular site (or another sitesimilar in soil and contaminant characteristics). This approachmay increase soil microbe concentrations rapidly. Microbesselected must be nonpathogenic and must metabolize the oilcontaminant(s), reducing toxicity. Growth requirements of themicrobes need to be well unders
33、tood. Their growth rate iscontrolled by the limiting growth conditions of temperature,pH, nutrients, water, oxygen, the contaminated medium (soil,sludge, and water), and oil. Microorganisms as well as oilcomponents should be monitored to establish efficacy andsafety. Addition of non-indigenous micro
34、bes has not beenfound to be highly effective (14, 18).5.1.3 While apparently safe and effective in the laboratorysetting, genetically engineered oil-degrading microorganismshave only rarely been authorized for environmental release (forexample,19).5.2 There are several bioremediation technologies av
35、ailable.It is important to understand the potential use of these systemswhen assessing their applicability for full-scale implementa-tion. Costs are determined by the size of the site, soilproperties, type and level of oil contaminant(s), goals, timeallowed for attaining the goals, and testing requi
36、rements.5.3 In situ bioremediation occurs without excavation of thecontaminated soil. This technology relies predominantly on theenhanced degradation of oil by bacteria following the additionof nutrients, air, oxygen or oxygen-releasing compounds, andmoisture. This has usually been demonstrated thro
37、ugh the useof indigenous microorganisms. Ground-water treatment maybe achieved simultaneously or through pump and ex situtreatment methods. Anaerobic biodegradation systems can alsobe promoted; however, their utility has been limited to date.2The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to a list of re
38、ferences at the end ofthis standard.F1693 172Since soil is not excavated, volatile release is limited, and therisks and costs associated with excavation and treatment arereduced.5.3.1 Bioventing involves the introduction of air underpressure to the unsaturated zone of contaminated soil. Theprocess p
39、ulls or pushes air into the soil for use by the aerobicmicroorganisms. Although the purpose is to deliver oxygenrequired by the microbes, it may dry the soil and require theaddition of moisture. Furthermore, the flow of air will desorbsome of the more volatile components from the soil (forexample, g
40、asoline-contaminated soil), and the exhaust gasesmay have to be treated. Successful treatment requires adequatesoil porosity, moisture, nutrients, and microorganisms with theappropriate biodegradation abilities. Additives may be pro-vided at or near the surface to percolate through the treatmentzone
41、.5.3.2 Biosparging is similar to bioventing except that air isinjected directly into the ground below the water table in thesaturated zones, and contaminant volatility (and subsequenttreatment) is encouraged. Although the purpose is to deliveroxygen required by the microbes, vacuum pumps are oftenus
42、ed to recover vapors for treatment prior to discharge.Nutrients and microbes may be added in the injection well tostimulate and augment biodegradation.5.4 Solid-phase bioremediation treats soils above ground,primarily in contained treatment cells or tanks. Techniquessimilar to landfarming are used,
43、including irrigation, tilling,and nutrient and microbe additions. As with in situbioremediation, treatment can involve biostimulation or bio-augmentation. Losses through volatilization and leaching canbe minimized through treatment design and implementation.The contaminated soil is contained, and is
44、 defined with respectto the volume and concentration of the oil, especially as the soilis homogenized during processing.6. Methodologies6.1 A comprehensive contaminated materials handling plan(CMHP) should be developed prior to excavation and treat-ment. It may include the designation of a materials
45、 staging areapresent within the treatment facility and equipment decontami-nation within delineated exclusion zones.6.2 A comprehensive health and safety program should bein effect throughout the remediation project. This program mayinclude medical examinations of employees, contact and respi-ratory
46、 protection, and air, soil, and water monitoring.6.3 The treatment facility should contain appropriate pro-tection from rainfall and flooding, and facilities to handleexcess water at the site. After the appropriate soil moisturecontent is determined for the specific treatment, a moisturebudget shoul
47、d be calculated. This should maintain the propermoisture content balance between moisture added by irrigationand rainfall, and moisture lost through evaporation,transpiration, and percolation.6.4 Solid heaping involves piling the contaminated soil toseveral meters, usually over a network of perforat
48、ed piping thatmay be layered throughout. Nutrients, water, and microorgan-isms are added, and air is drawn through the pipes by vacuum.The vacuum system exhaust may be treated prior to discharge,effectively removing airborne volatile or semi-volatile compo-nents.Advantages include a requirement for
49、less space and lessmaterial handling compared with solid-phase treatment(landfarming), and diminished volatile losses. Leachates arecollected and treated, recirculated or discharged.6.5 Composting promotes biodegradation in stored wastesby adding bulking agents (biodegradable or non-biodegradable) that enhance soil permeability. The biologicdecaying process is often thermophilic, thus limiting the typesof microbes and associated degradation rates. Three basicsystems have been used. “Open windrow” stacks the waste inlong piles that are aerated through constant excava
