1、34.1CHAPTER 34ENERGY RESOURCESCHARACTERISTICS OF ENERGY AND ENERGY RESOURCE FORMS . 34.1On-Site Energy/Energy Resource Relationships . 34.2Summary 34.3ENERGY RESOURCE PLANNING. 34.3Integrated Resource Planning (IRP) . 34.3Tradable Emission Credits. 34.4OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL ENERGY RESOURCES 34.4World E
2、nergy Resources 34.4Carbon Emissions 34.7U.S. Energy Use . 34.7U.S. Agencies and Associations . 34.9NERGY used in buildings and facilities is responsible for 30E to 40% of the worlds energy use, significantly impacting worldenergy resources. ASHRAEs work to reduce energy consumptionin the built envi
3、ronment is equally as important as research on new,more sustainable energy sources in helping ensure a reliable andsecure supply of energy for future generations.Many governmental agencies regulate energy conservation, oftenthrough the procedures to obtain building permits. Required effi-ciency valu
4、es for building energy use strongly influence selection ofHVAC having beenextracted as crude oil, it arrives at a given site as, for example, No. 2oil or diesel fuel. Electricity is created (converted) from a differentenergy form, often a fossil fuel, which itself may first be convertedto a thermal
5、form. The total electricity conversion, generation, anddistribution process includes energy losses governed largely by thelaws of thermodynamics.Fossil fuels undergo a conversion process by combustion (oxida-tion) and heat transfer to thermal energy in the form of steam or hotwater. The conversion e
6、quipment is a boiler or a furnace in lieu of agenerator, and conversion usually occurs on a project site rather thanoff site. (District heating or cooling is an exception.) Inefficienciesof fossil fuel conversion occur on site, whereas inefficiencies of mostelectricity generation occur off site, bef
7、ore the electricity arrives atthe building site. (Cogeneration is an exception.)Sustainability is an important consideration for energy use. TheUnited Nations Brundtland Report (UN 1987) stated that the devel-opment of the built environment is sustainable if it “meets the needsof the present without
8、 compromising the ability of future genera-tions to meet their own needs.” More information is in Chapter 35.Forms of On-Site EnergyFossil fuels and electricity are commodities that are usuallymetered or measured for payment at the facilitys location. Solar orwind energy is freely available but does
9、 incur cost for the means touse it. Geothermal energy, which is not universally available, may ormay not be a sold commodity, depending on the particular locale andlocal regulations. Chapter 34 of the 2015 ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Applications has more information on geothermal energy.The term energy sou
10、rce refers to on-site energy in the form inwhich it arrives at or occurs on a site (e.g., electricity, gas, oil, coal).Energy resource refers to the raw energy that (1) is extracted fromthe earth (wellhead or mine-mouth), (2) is used to generate theenergy source delivered to a building site (e.g., c
11、oal used to generateelectricity), or (3) occurs naturally and is available at a site (solar,wind, or geothermal energy). Some on-site energy forms require fur-ther processing or conversion into more suitable forms for the par-ticular systems and equipment in a building or facility. For instance,natu
12、ral gas or oil is burned in a boiler to produce steam or hot water,which is then distributed to various use points (e.g., heating coils inair-handling systems, unit heaters, convectors, fin-tube elements,steam-powered cooling units, humidifiers, kitchen equipment)throughout the building. Although th
13、e methods and efficiencies ofthese processes fall within the scope of the HVAC or (2) renewableresources, which have the potential to regenerate in a reasonableThe preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 2.8, Building Environmen-tal Impacts and Sustainability.34.2 2017 ASHRAE HandbookFundament
14、als (SI)period. Resources used most in industrialized countries are nonre-newable (ASHRAE 2003).Note that renewable does not mean an infinite supply. For in-stance, hydropower is limited by rainfall and appropriate sites, us-able geothermal energy is available only in limited areas, and cropsare lim
15、ited by the available farm area and competing non-energyland uses. Other forms of renewable energy also have supply limita-tions.Nonrenewable resources of energy includeCoalCrude oilNatural gasUranium or plutonium (nuclear energy)Renewable resources of energy includeHydropowerSolarWindGeothermalBiom
16、ass (wood, wood wastes, and municipal solid waste, landfillmethane, etc.)Tidal powerOcean thermalCrops (for alcohol production or as boiler fuel)Environmental ConsiderationsThe most widely recognized environmental impact from energyuse in buildings is greenhouse gas emissions; carbon dioxide emis-si
17、ons is usually the most important greenhouse gas resulting fromenergy use in buildings. In this area, use of renewable resources andnuclear power generally results in no net greenhouse gas emissions,whereas fossil fuel energy use generally results in substantial green-house gas emissions.However, no
18、te that the important issue is the amount of green-house gas emissions released into the air, not the amount of a fuelused. It has been argued that some biomass energy sources are notreally carbon-free sources, because they result in carbon dioxidereleases that are not directly offset by carbon diox
19、ide capturethrough growing vegetation to replace the biomass fuel. Even forfossil fuel energy use, research is ongoing for carbon capture andsequestration for emissions from fossil fuel electric power plants. Ifthe carbon dioxide from a fossil fuel energy source is not releasedinto the atmosphere, t
20、here are no greenhouse gas emissions result-ing from the use of that fuel.In addition to greenhouse gases, there are also local air pollutionissues from combustion of fuels. These include emissions of carbonmonoxide, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, heavy metals, and par-ticulates. These occur in th
21、e combustion of fossil fuels and biomass,and do not occur from the use of renewable energy (other than bio-mass) or nuclear power. Emissions of local air pollutants varygreatly, depending on design of the combustion equipment and con-trols technology used. Note that biomass energy sources mayrequire
22、 similar mitigation measures to reduce local air emissions aswould be required for fossil fuel energy sources.1.1 ON-SITE ENERGY/ENERGY RESOURCE RELATIONSHIPSAn HVAC for electricity, it includes the percentage ofgeneration from various fuel sources. Consider the projected futuresupply and reliabilit
23、y of energy resources, including the possibilityof supply disruption by natural or political events, and the likeli-hood of future supply shortages, which could reduce reliability.Reserve margins, or the ratio of total supply sources to expectedpeak supply source needs. Reserve levels that are too h
24、igh result inwaste of resources, higher environmental costs, and possibly poorfinancial health of the energy suppliers. Reserves that are too lowresult in volatile and very high peak energy prices and reduced re-liability.Land use. Energy production and transmission often require gov-ernmental coope
25、ration to condemn private property for energyproduction and transmission facilities. Construction and mainte-nance are also regulated to protect wetlands, prevent toxic wastereleases, and other environmental issues.Note that some energy regulation plans provide no guidance atall on energy supplies,
26、through integrated resource planning (IRP)or other methods. Energy suppliers choose whether to expand theircapacity, and what types of fuel those facilities use, based on theirown assessment of the future profitability of that investment. Inthese markets, decisions are made with little societal inpu
27、t otherthan permitting and pollution control regulations, just as a decisionmight be made by a manufacturer in an industry such as steel orpaper. This does not mean that decisions are made independent oflarger societal issues, because laws and regulations (e.g., tradableemissions credits, renewable
28、portfolio standards) factor into theeconomic considerations of competing suppliers. There is simplymore direct planning by governmental authorities, and more oppor-tunities for public input, in the integrated resource planning processtypically done by regulated utility providers, as described in mor
29、edetail in the following.2.1 INTEGRATED RESOURCE PLANNING (IRP)In regulated utility markets, integrated resource planning is com-monly used for planning significant new energy facilities, especiallyfor electricity. Steps include (1) forecasting the amount of newresources needed and (2) determining t
30、he type and provider of thisresource. Traditionally, the local utility provider forecasts futureneeds of a given energy resource, then either builds the necessaryfacility with the approval of regulators or uses a standard offer bidto determine what nonutility provider (or the utility itself) wouldpr
31、ovide the new energy resource.Supplying new energy resources through either a standard bidprocess by a supplier or traditional utility regulation usually resultsin selection of the lowest-cost supply option, without regard forenvironmental costs or other societal needs. IRP allows a greatervariety o
32、f resource options and allows environmental and other indi-rect societal costs to be given greater consideration.IRP addresses a wider population of stakeholders than mostother planning processes. Many regulatory agencies involve thepublic in the formulation and review of integrated resource plans.C
33、ustomers, environmentalists, and other public interest groups areoften prominent in these proceedings.In deregulated energy markets, supplying markets with newenergy resources is typically left up to competitive market forces.This has sometimes resulted in excessive reliance on one form ofenergy, su
34、ch as natural gas generation. Another result has beenhighly volatile prices, when supply is not provided because of insuf-ficient price signals, followed by much higher prices and energyshortages until new supply sources can be obtained (which may notbe for several years because of the time required
35、 for constructionand environmental approval processes). Energy efficiency anddemand response programs are increasingly treated as an energyresource on a par with energy production options, with incentivesand compensation provided for participants in these programs.34.4 2017 ASHRAE HandbookFundamenta
36、ls (SI)Demand-side management (DSM) is a common option for pro-viding new energy resources, especially for electricity. These areactions taken to reduce the demand for energy, rather than increasethe supply of energy. DSM is desirable because its environmentalcosts are almost always lower than those
37、 of building new energyfacilities. However, the following factors have caused a decline inthe number of DSM programs:Building and equipment codes and standards are a highly efficientform of DSM, reducing energy use with much lower administra-tive costs than programs that reward installation of more
38、efficientequipment at a single site. However, they are more subtle than tra-ditional DSM programs and may not always be recognized as aform of DSM.Opening markets to competing suppliers makes it more difficultto administer and implement DSM programs. However, they arestill possible if regulators wis
39、h to continue them, and set appro-priate rules and regulations for the market to allow implementa-tion of DSM programs.Many IRP participants may be interested in only one aspect ofthe process. For example, the energy industrys main interest may becost minimization, whereas environmentalists may want
40、 to mini-mize pollutant emissions and prevent environmental damage fromconstruction of energy facilities. Participation by all affected inter-est groups helps provide the best overall solution for society, includ-ing indirect costs and benefits from these energy resource decisions.2.2 TRADABLE EMISS
41、ION CREDITSIncreasingly, quotas and limits apply to emissions of various pol-lutants. Often, a market-based system of tradable credits is usedwith these quotas. A company is given the right to produce a givenlevel of emissions, and it earns a credit, which can be sold to others,if it produces fewer
42、emissions than that level. If one company canreduce its emissions at a lower cost than another, it can do so and sellthe emissions credit to the second company and earn a profit from itspollution control efforts. In the United States, emissions quota andtrading programs currently include sulfur diox
43、ide (SO2) and nitro-gen oxides (NOx), with plans to implement carbon dioxide (CO2)trading now under consideration, as well. In Europe, emissions trad-ing for CO2has been active for several years.Designers must be aware of any regulations concerning pollutantemissions; failure to comply with these re
44、gulations may result incivil or criminal penalties for designers or their clients. However,understand the options available under these regulations. The pur-chase or sale of emissions credits may allow reduced construction orbuilding operations costs if the equipment can overcomply at alower cost th
45、an the cost of another source of emissions to comply, orvice versa. In some cases, documentation of energy savings beyondwhat codes and regulations require can result in receiving emissionscredits that may be sold later.3. OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL ENERGY RESOURCES3.1 WORLD ENERGY RESOURCESData in this sec
46、tion are from the Statistical Review of WorldEnergy 2015 (BP 2015).ProductionEnergy production trends, by leading producers and worldregions, from 2004 to 2014 are shown in Figure 1.World primary energy production increased 21.2% from 2004 to2014, because strong economic growth occurred in countries
47、 suchas China, which increased its energy production more than 60%since 2004. The largest total energy producers in 2014 were China(19%), the United States (16%), Russia (10%), and Saudi Arabia(7%). Together, they produced about 52% of the worlds energy pro-duction. (Note: for this and for similar g
48、raphs, the “Europe and Eur-asia” region consists of the nations of western Europe plus thecountries comprised by the former Soviet Union.)Total world energy production by resource type for 2004 and2014 is shown in Figure 2. The greatest growth in energy productionamong major sources has been hydroel
49、ectricity, up nearly 33% inusage from 2004 to 2014, and coal, which has increased 30.3%, andnatural gas, up 10.3%. Petroleum use only rose 7.1%. Nonhydroelec-tric renewables use more than doubled, but is still a small percentageof total world energy production (BP 2015). Crude Oil. World crude oil production was 88.7 million barrels(10 577 000 m3) per day in 2014. The biggest crude-oil-producingregion in 2014 was the Middle East, with 32% of the total. Amongindividual countries, the United States (13.1%), Saudi Arabia(13.0%), and Russia (12.2%) were the leading countries, following
