1、2014 ASHRAEHANDBOOKREFRIGERATIONASHRAE, 1791 Tullie Circle, N.E., Atlanta, GA 30329www.ashrae.orgSI Edition 2014 ASHRAE. All rights reserved.DEDICATED TO THE ADVANCEMENT OFTHE PROFESSION AND ITS ALLIED INDUSTRIESNo part of this publication may be reproduced without permission in writing fromASHRAE,
2、except by a reviewer who may quote brief passages or reproduce illustrations ina review with appropriate credit; nor may any part of this book be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system, or transmitted in any way or by any meanselectronic, photocopying,recording, or otherwithout permission in writin
3、g from ASHRAE. Requests for permis-sion should be submitted at www.ashrae.org/permissions.Volunteer members of ASHRAE Technical Committees and others compiled the infor-mation in this handbook, and it is generally reviewed and updated every four years. Com-ments, criticisms, and suggestions regardin
4、g the subject matter are invited. Any errors oromissions in the data should be brought to the attention of the Editor. Additions and correc-tions to Handbook volumes in print will be published in the Handbook published the yearfollowing their verification and, as soon as verified, on the ASHRAE Inte
5、rnet web site.DISCLAIMERASHRAE has compiled this publication with care, but ASHRAE has not investigated,and ASHRAE expressly disclaims any duty to investigate, any product, service, process,procedure, design, or the like that may be described herein. The appearance of any technicaldata or editorial
6、material in this publication does not constitute endorsement, warranty, orguaranty by ASHRAE of any product, service, process, procedure, design, or the like.ASHRAE does not warrant that the information in this publication is free of errors. Theentire risk of the use of any information in this publi
7、cation is assumed by the user.ISBN 978-1-936504-72-5ISSN 1930-7217The paper for this book is both acid- and elemental-chlorine-free and was manufactured with pulp obtained from sources using sustainable forestry practices.CONTENTSContributorsASHRAE Technical Committees, Task Groups, and Technical Re
8、source GroupsASHRAE Research: Improving the Quality of LifePrefaceSYSTEMS AND PRACTICESChapter 1. Halocarbon Refrigeration Systems (TC 10.3, Refrigerant Piping, Controls and Accessories)2. Ammonia Refrigeration Systems (TC 10.3)3. Carbon Dioxide Refrigeration Systems (TC 10.3)4. Liquid Overfeed Syst
9、ems (TC 10.1, Custom Engineered Refrigeration Systems)5. Component Balancing in Refrigeration Systems (TC 10.1)6. Refrigerant System Chemistry (TC 3.2, Refrigerant System Chemistry)7. Control of Moisture and Other Contaminants in Refrigerant Systems (TC 3.3, Refrigerant Contaminant Control)8. Equipm
10、ent and System Dehydrating, Charging, and Testing (TC 8.1, Positive Displacement Compressors)9. Refrigerant Containment, Recovery, Recycling, and Reclamation (TC 3.8, Refrigerant Containment)COMPONENTS AND EQUIPMENTChapter 10. Insulation Systems for Refrigerant Piping (TC 10.3)11. Refrigerant Contro
11、l Devices (TC 8.8, Refrigerant System Controls and Accessories)12. Lubricants in Refrigerant Systems (TC 3.4, Lubrication)13. Secondary Coolants in Refrigeration Systems (TC 10.1)14. Forced-Circulation Air Coolers (TC 8.4, Air-to-Refrigerant Heat Transfer Equipment)15. Retail Food Store Refrigeratio
12、n and Equipment (TC 10.7, Commercial Food and Beverage Refrigeration Equipment)16. Food Service and General Commercial Refrigeration Equipment (TC 10.7)17. Household Refrigerators and Freezers (TC 8.9, Residential Refrigerators and Food Freezers)18. Absorption Equipment (TC 8.3, Absorption and Heat
13、Operated Machines)FOOD COOLING AND STORAGEChapter 19. Thermal Properties of Foods (TC 10.5, Refrigerated Distribution and Storage Facilities)20. Cooling and Freezing Times of Foods (TC 10.5)21. Commodity Storage Requirements (TC 10.5)22. Food Microbiology and Refrigeration (TC 10.5)23. Refrigerated-
14、Facility Design (TC 10.5)24. Refrigerated-Facility Loads (TC 10.8, Refrigeration Load Calculations)REFRIGERATED TRANSPORTChapter 25. Cargo Containers, Rail Cars, Trailers, and Trucks (TC 10.6, Transport Refrigeration)26. Marine Refrigeration (TC 10.6)27. Air Transport (TC 10.6)FOOD, BEVERAGE, AND FL
15、ORAL APPLICATIONSChapter 28. Methods of Precooling Fruits, Vegetables, and Cut Flowers (TC 10.5)29. Industrial Food-Freezing Systems (TC 10.5)30. Meat Products (TC 10.5)31. Poultry Products (TC 10.5)32. Fishery Products (TC 10.5)33. Dairy Products (TC 10.5)34. Eggs and Egg Products (TC 10.5)35. Deci
16、duous Tree and Vine Fruit (TC 10.5)36. Citrus Fruit, Bananas, and Subtropical Fruit (TC 10.5)37. Vegetables (TC 10.5)38. Fruit Juice Concentrates and Chilled Juice Products (TC 10.5)39. Beverages (TC 10.5)40. Processed, Precooked, and Prepared Foods (TC 10.5)41. Bakery Products (TC 10.5)42. Chocolat
17、es, Candies, Nuts, Dried Fruits, and Dried Vegetables (TC 10.5)INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONSChapter 43. Ice Manufacture (TC 10.2, Automatic Icemaking Plants and Skating Rinks)44. Ice Rinks (TC 10.2)45. Concrete Dams and Subsurface Soils (TC 10.1)46. Refrigeration in the Chemical Industry (TC 10.1)LOW-TEMP
18、ERATURE APPLICATIONSChapter 47. Cryogenics (TC 10.1)48. Ultralow-Temperature Refrigeration (TC 10.1)49. Biomedical Applications of Cryogenic Refrigeration (TC 10.1)GENERALChapter 50. Terminology of Refrigeration (TC 10.1)51. Codes and StandardsADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONSINDEXComposite index to the 201
19、1 HVAC Applications, 2012 HVAC Systems and Equipment,2013 Fundamentals, and 2014 Refrigeration volumesComment PagesCONTRIBUTORSIn addition to the Technical Committees, the following individuals contributed significantly to this volume. The appropriate chapter numbers follow each contributors name.Da
20、niel Dettmers (1)IRC University of WisconsinMadisonCaleb Nelson (1)CTA, Inc.Jim Caylor (2) Bruce Griffith (2)Johnson ControlsTodd Jekel (4)Industrial Refrigeration Consortium, University of WisconsinEric Smith (4)International Institute of Ammonia RefrigerationJohn Sluga (4, 13)Hanson Technologies C
21、orporationWarren Clough (6)UTC Building tele-phone: 404-636-8400; www.ashrae.org.PrefaceThe 2014 ASHRAE HandbookRefrigeration covers the refrig-eration equipment and systems for applications other than humancomfort. This volume includes data and guidance on cooling, freez-ing, and storing food; indu
22、strial and medical applications of refrig-eration; and low-temperature refrigeration.An accompanying CD-ROM contains all the volumes chaptersin both I-P and SI units.Some of this volumes revisions are described as follows:Chapter 1, Halocarbon Refrigeration Systems, has three new sec-tions to addres
23、s issues involving the Montreal Protocol and thephaseout of halocarbons. It also has a new introduction, plusupdates to sections on Applications and System Safety. Chapter 2, Ammonia Refrigeration Systems, has been extensivelyreorganized and updated for current practice.Chapter 6, Refrigerant System
24、 Chemistry, has new sections onadditives and process chemicals.Chapter 7, Control of Moisture and Other Contaminants inRefrigerant Systems, has added moisture isotherm data for refrig-erants R-290 and R-600a. It also contains a new section on systemsampling in conjunction with retrofits, troubleshoo
25、ting, or routinemaintenance.Chapter 10, Insulation Systems for Refrigerant Piping, has re-vised insulation table values to comply with ASTM StandardC680-10.Chapter 12, Lubricants in Refrigerant Systems, has expandedcontent on hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and new guidance on ret-rofits.Chapter 15, Retai
26、l Food Store Refrigeration and Equipment, hasupdates to sections on multiplex compressor racks, secondary andCO2systems, gas defrost, liquid subcooling, and heat reclaim.Chapter 17, Household Refrigerators and Freezers, has updateson LED lighting in cabinets.Chapter 24, Refrigerated-Facility Loads,
27、includes new content onpackaging loads from moisture, updated motor heat gain rates,and a new example of a complete facility load calculation.Chapter 25, Cargo Containers, Rail Cars, Trailers, and Trucks,updated throughout, has a major revision to the section on Equip-ment.Chapter 27, Air Transport,
28、 has major revisions to the extensivesection on Galley Refrigeration.Chapter 51, Codes and Standards, has been updated to list currentversions of selected publications from ASHRAE and others. Pub-lications are listed by topic, and full contact information for pub-lishing organizations is included.Th
29、is volume is published, as a bound print volume and in elec-tronic format on CD-ROM and online, in two editions: one usinginch-pound (I-P) units of measurement, the other using the Interna-tional System of Units (SI).Corrections to the 2011, 2012, and 2013 Handbook volumes canbe found on the ASHRAE
30、web site at http:/www.ashrae.org and inthe Additions and Corrections section of this volume. Correctionsfor this volume will be listed in subsequent volumes and on theASHRAE web site.Reader comments are enthusiastically invited. To suggest im-provements for a chapter, please comment using the form o
31、n theASHRAE web site or, using the cutout page(s) at the end of thisvolumes index, write to Handbook Editor, ASHRAE, 1791 TullieCircle, Atlanta, GA 30329, or fax 678-539-2187, or e-mailmowenashrae.org.Mark S. OwenEditor1.1CHAPTER 1HALOCARBON REFRIGERATION SYSTEMSApplication. 1.1System Safety 1.2Basi
32、c Piping Principles . 1.2Refrigerant Line Sizing 1.3Piping at Multiple Compressors 1.20Piping at Various System Components 1.21Discharge (Hot-Gas) Lines 1.24Defrost Gas Supply Lines. 1.26Heat Exchangers and Vessels. 1.26Refrigeration Accessories 1.29Pressure Control for Refrigerant Condensers 1.33Ke
33、eping Liquid from Crankcase During Off Cycles 1.34Hot-Gas Bypass Arrangements 1.35Minimizing Refrigerant Charge in Commercial Systems . 1.36Refrigerant Retrofitting 1.37Temperature Glide 1.37EFRIGERATION is the process of moving heat from one loca-R tion to another by use of refrigerant in a closed
34、cycle. Oil man-agement; gas and liquid separation; subcooling, superheating, desu-perheating, and piping of refrigerant liquid, gas, and two-phase floware all part of refrigeration. Applications include air conditioning,commercial refrigeration, and industrial refrigeration. This chapterfocuses on s
35、ystems that use halocarbons (halogenated hydrocar-bons) as refrigerants. The most commonly used halogen refrigerantsare chlorine (Cl) and fluorine (F).Halocarbon refrigerants are classified into four groups: chloro-fluorocarbons (CFCs), which contain carbon, chlorine, and fluorine;hydrochlorofluoroc
36、arbons (HCFCs), which consist of carbon, hydro-gen, chlorine, and fluorine; hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which con-tain carbon, hydrogen, and fluorine; and hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs),which are HFC refrigerants derived from an alkene (olefin; i.e., anunsaturated compound having at least one carbon-to-ca
37、rbon doublebond). Examples of these refrigerants can be found in Chapter 29 ofthe 2013 ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals.Desired characteristics of a halocarbon refrigeration system mayinclude Year-round operation, regardless of outdoor ambient conditionsPossible wide load variations (0 to 100% capacity)
38、during short peri-ods without serious disruption of the required temperature levelsFrost control for continuous-performance applicationsOil management for different refrigerants under varying load andtemperature conditionsA wide choice of heat exchange methods (e.g., dry expansion, liq-uid overfeed,
39、 or flooded feed of the refrigerants) and use of second-ary coolants such as salt brine, alcohol, glycol, and carbon dioxide.System efficiency, maintainability, and operating simplicityOperating pressures and pressure ratios that might require multi-staging, cascading, and so forthDevelopment of hal
40、ocarbon refrigerants dates back to the 1920s.The main refrigerants used then were ammonia (R-717), chloro-methane (R-40), and sulfur dioxide (R-764), all of which have somedegree of toxicity and/or flammability. These first-generationrefrigerants were an impediment to Frigidaires plans to expandinto
41、 refrigeration and air conditioning, so Frigidaire and DuPont col-laborated to develop safer refrigerants. In 1928, Thomas Midgley,Jr., of Frigidaire and his colleagues developed the first commerciallyavailable CFC refrigerant, dichlorodifluoromethane (R-12) (Giunta2006). Chlorinated halocarbon refr
42、igerants represent the secondgeneration of refrigerants (Calm 2008).Concern about the use of halocarbon refrigerants began with a1974 paper by two University of California professors, Frank Row-land and Mario Molina, in which they highlighted the damagechlorine could cause to the ozone layer in the
43、stratosphere. This pub-lication eventually led to the Montreal Protocol Agreement in 1987and its subsequent revisions, which restricted the production and useof chlorinated halocarbon (CFC and HCFC) refrigerants. All CFCrefrigerant production was phased out in the United States at thebeginning of 19
44、96. The development of replacement HFC, third-generation refrigerants ensued following these restrictions (Calm2008).Although HFC refrigerants do not contain chlorine and thus haveno effect on stratospheric ozone, they have come under heavy scru-tiny because of their global warming potential (GWP):
45、like CFCsand HFCs, they are greenhouse gases, and can trap radiant energy(IPPC 1990). HFO refrigerants, however, have significantly lowerGWP values, and are being developed and promoted as alternativesto HFC refrigerants.A successful refrigeration system depends on good piping designand an understan
46、ding of the required accessories. This chapter cov-ers the fundamentals of piping and accessories in halocarbon refrig-erant systems. Hydrocarbon refrigerant pipe friction data can befound in petroleum industry handbooks. Use the refrigerant proper-ties and information in Chapters 3, 29, and 30 of t
47、he 2013 ASHRAEHandbookFundamentals to calculate friction losses.For information on refrigeration load, see Chapter 24. For R-502information, refer to the 1998 ASHRAE HandbookRefrigeration.APPLICATIONBeyond the operational system characteristics described previ-ously, political and environmental fact
48、ors may need to be accountedfor when designing, building, and installing halocarbon refrigerationsystems. Heightened awareness of the impact halocarbon refriger-ants have on ozone depletion and/or global warming has led to ban-ning or phaseouts of certain refrigerants. Some end users areconcerned ab
49、out the future cost and availability of these refrigerants,and may fear future penalties that may come with owning and oper-ating systems that use halocarbons. Therefore, many owners, engi-neers, and manufacturers seek to reduce charge and build tightersystems to reduce the total system charge on site and ensure that lessrefrigerant is released into the atmosphere.However, halocarbon refrigeration systems are still widely used.Although CFCs have been banned and HCFCs are being phased outbecause of their ODP, HFCs, which have a global warming potential(GWP), are still us
