1、Designation: E 1848 96 (Reapproved 2008)Standard Guide forSelecting and Using Ecological Endpoints for ContaminatedSites1This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 1848; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision, th
2、e year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 This guide covers an approach to identification, selec-tion, and use of ecological endpoints (both assessme
3、nt andmeasurement endpoints) (1-8)2that are susceptible to the directand indirect effects of both chemical and non-chemical stres-sors or agents associated with wastes and contaminated mediaat specific sites under current and future land uses. It does notaddress assessment and measurement endpoints
4、for non-sitespecific studies (for example, chemical-specific or regional riskassessments) or measurements in abiotic media (soil, water, orair).1.2 This guide addresses only the identification, selection,and use of assessment and measurement endpoints, not the fullrange of activities that occur in a
5、n ecological assessment orecological risk assessment at a contaminated site (1, 3-8).These activities are addressed in other ASTM guides andreferences provided at the end of this guide.1.3 This guide is intended to identify assessment andmeasurement endpoints to be used for screening, preliminary,fo
6、cused, detailed, and quantitative ecological risk assessmentsconducted in a linear or iterative fashion (3, 8). This is a partial,incomplete listing of possible levels of assessment. In a tieredecological risk assessment, it may be necessary to redefineecological endpoints when planning to collect m
7、ore data orwhen additional site data are obtained and evaluated.1.4 This guide is intended to be used by trained biologists,ecologists, and ecotoxicologists familiar with risk assessment,and ecological and ecotoxicological concepts.1.5 This guide (including Appendix X1) consists of a seriesof option
8、s or instructions and does not recommend a specificcourse of action or provide detailed guidelines to be followedat all sites. See 2.2.2 of Regulations Governing ASTM Techni-cal Committees.31.6 This standard does not purport to address all of thesafety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It i
9、s theresponsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.2. Referenced Documents2.1 ASTM Standards:45E 943 Terminology Relating to Biological Effects and En-vironmental FateE 1689 Gu
10、ide for Developing Conceptual Site Models forContaminated Sites3. Terminology3.1 DefinitionsDefinitions are provided specifically foruse with this guide. Many of the terms listed in this sectionhave been modified from those defined in other publications(1-8).3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This
11、 Standard:3.2.1 assessment endpointan explicit expression of anenvironmental value (ecological, not monetary) to be protected(3).3.2.1.1 DiscussionAn assessment endpoint is an ecologi-cal condition of potential concern or effect experienced by anecological receptor with ecological and societal value
12、 thatdrives risk-based decision-making at a contaminated site (forexample, a specific reduction in the abundance of a fishpopulation or the disruption of the structure of benthic com-munity). It is a qualitative, quantitative, or quantifiable expres-sion, measure, metric, or index involving an ecolo
13、gical recep-tor at risk. Under some circumstances, assessment endpointsmay be measured and used directly for assessment purposes.Assessment endpoints are the ultimate focus in risk character-ization and link measurement endpoints (see below) to policygoals and the risk management process (1-3, 5, 6,
14、 8).1This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E47 on BiologicalEffects and Environmental Fate and is the direct responsibility of SubcommitteeE47.05 on Risk Assessment, Communication and Management.Current edition approved Feb. 1, 2008. Published April 2008. Originallyapproved in 1996.
15、 Last previous edition approved in 2003 as E 1848 96(2003).2The boldface numbers given in parentheses refer to a list of references at theend of the text.3Available from ASTM Headquarters.4For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, orcontact ASTM Customer Service at service
16、astm.org. For Annual Book of ASTMStandards volume information, refer to the standards Document Summary page onthe ASTM website.5A bibliography of related references and documents is provided in AppendixX2.1Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-
17、2959, United States.3.2.2 chemical stressora chemical, chemical mixture orradionuclide present in an environmental medium that isknown or suspected to induce an adverse biological, toxico-logical or ecological response in an exposed ecological recep-tor (3-8).3.2.2.1 DiscussionA chemical stressor is
18、 often referred toas an “ecological contaminant of concern.”3.2.3 exposure areaa geographic location in which one ormore site-related stressors are present and ecological receptorsare potentially exposed.3.2.4 direct effectan adverse impact on an exposed eco-logical receptor (for example, increased
19、mortality or reducedgrowth) as a result of the action of a site-related stressor.3.2.5 ecological endpointa general term to refer to anassessment or measurement endpoint in an ecological riskassessment (2,3).3.2.5.1 DiscussionMeasurement of chemical concentra-tions in soil, water, or air are not eco
20、logical endpoints; thesemeasurements indicate exposure levels that may be used toevaluate the potential for an ecological response.3.2.6 ecological receptorecosystems, habitats, communi-ties, populations, and individual organisms (except humans)that can be exposed directly or indirectly to site stre
21、ssors(3,4,7,8).3.2.7 endpointan ecological characteristic (measure, met-ric, or index) that may be adversely affected by a site-relatedstressor (4).3.2.8 indirect effectan adverse impact on an ecologicalreceptor (for example, predator) resulting from the direct effectof a stressor on another ecologi
22、cal receptor (for example,reduction in food supply or habitat).3.2.9 indicator speciesan organism that is typically com-mon and represents a broad class of species present at the siteor in surrounding areas, or both.3.2.9.1 DiscussionThere is sufficient information on itslife history and response to
23、 contaminants to construct a modelto predict (with uncertainty) the potential for effects.3.2.10 measurement endpointa measurable response to astressor (measure, metric, or index) that is quantifiably relatedto the valued characteristic chosen as the assessment endpoint(3).3.2.10.1 DiscussionExample
24、s of a measurement endpointare the reduction in the growth, survival, or reproduction ofminnows in a standard laboratory toxicity test. These examplesof measurement endpoints would be appropriate for assessmentendpoints defined as specific predefined reductions in thegrowth, survival, or reduction i
25、n a forage fish population in astream, river, or lake at the site (2-4, 8).3.2.10.2 DiscussionA measurement endpoint may serveas an assessment endpoint if the measurement endpoint (mea-sured value) is the ecological value to be protected. See relatedterm measure of effect (9).3.2.11 non-chemical str
26、essora biological agent, physicaldisturbance, condition, or non-chemical characteristic of awaste material, substrate, or source associated with a contami-nated site and corrective actions that is known or suspected tointerfere with the normal functioning of an ecological receptor(3).3.2.11.1 Discus
27、sionNon-native species, biologically engi-neered organisms, and pathogens are examples of non-chemical biological stressors. Radiation other than that asso-ciated with specific radionuclides, erosion, dredging,impounding, grading, vegetation removal and similaralterations/disruptions, altered partic
28、le size distribution, sub-strate instability, temperature and pH extremes, dissolvedoxygen content, water-holding capacity, organic content,physical effects of oil, and similar site characteristics unrelatedto specific chemicals are non-chemical stressors. No specificterm is proposed for non-chemica
29、l stressors that correspondsto88 ecological contaminant of concern” for chemical stressors.4. Significance and Use4.1 This guide assumes that a decision has been made thatan ecological risk assessment is required for a contaminatedsite. In some cases, this decision could be made before any sitedata
30、are collected.4.2 The selection of assessment endpoints (defined as eco-logical values to be protected) and measurement endpoints(ecological characteristics related to the assessment endpoints)is a critical step in conducting an ecological risk assessment.Endpoint selection identifies those effects
31、which are ecologi-cally significant and not merely those that are adverse, thusproviding a more rational and defensible basis for making riskand remedial decisions.4.3 This guide provides an approach for identifying, select-ing and using assessment and measurement endpoints in anecological risk asse
32、ssment for a contaminated site. This guidehas been developed because there is no universal, simplemeasure of ecological health analogous to measures used inhuman health risk assessment. Assessment and measurementendpoints have to be identified and selected from a variety ofindividual circumstances o
33、n a stressor-, ecosystem- and scale-specific basis. It is important to recognize that a diverse set ofecological endpoints could be required for a specific site.4.4 This guide is intended to be used primarily by abiologist, ecologist, ecotoxicologist, or a team of environmen-tal scientists during pr
34、oblem formulation and work plandevelopment prior to initiating data collection activities at acontaminated site (3-8, 10).4.5 Ecological risk assessment is usually an iterative pro-cess. In many circumstances it proceeds as a series of tiers, thatis, desktop/screening, preliminary, and detailed/focu
35、sedphases. This guide can be used to refine or modify assessmentand measurement endpoints developed in earlier phases of theprocess.4.6 This guide can be used whenever assessment andmeasurement endpoints must be identified and selected follow-ing an initial or preliminary problem formulation/plannin
36、gphase:4.6.1 Analysis phase (exposure assessment, hazard/effectsassessment, stress/dose-response assessment;4.6.2 Risk characterization phase; or4.6.3 Remediation phase and possible subsequent ecologi-cal monitoring.E 1848 96 (2008)24.7 This guide is intended to be used in the evaluation ofbaseline
37、conditions (current and future) and in the evaluation ofconditions resulting from remedial actions or corrective mea-sures.5. General Considerations5.1 Ecological risk assessment is a process of evaluatingrisks to individuals (in the case of threatened or endangeredspecies or those afforded special
38、protection), populations,communities and ecosystems exposed to chemical and non-chemical stressors. Stressors can act individually or togetherover multiple ecosystem types and diverse spatial scales.Conditions of the site and risk assessment that should beconsidered in identifying and selecting asse
39、ssment and mea-surement endpoints include (2,3):5.1.1 Stressor CharacteristicsTypes, properties, intensity,interactions, and spatial and temporal patterns;5.1.2 Ecosystem TypesAquatic, terrestrial, and wetlandsand their subcategories (for example, marine);5.1.3 Spatial ScaleThe exposure area over wh
40、ich theexposure to the stressor occurs and direct and indirect ecologi-cal effects are potentially produced;5.1.4 Temporal ScaleThe expected duration of exposure(acute to chronic) to the stressor, direct and indirect ecologicaleffects, and recovery time following removal of the stressor;5.1.5 Ecolog
41、ical OrganizationThe level of biological or-ganization (individual, population, community, or ecosystem)at which risk to an ecological receptor is to be assessed; and5.1.6 Functionality/ValuesSite-specific factors contribut-ing to the importance of local ecological receptors.5.2 Assessment and measu
42、rement endpoints are selected forspecific ecosystem and stressor combinations associated with asite. Assessment and measurement endpoints may addressmultiple ecosystem and habitat types, spatial and temporalscales, and levels of ecological organization.5.3 The conceptual site model describes sources
43、, releasesand transport pathways for contaminants present at a site. Thisinformation is used to define exposure pathways and exposureareas and is usually developed before identifying and selectingendpoints. Assessment and measurement endpoints should beidentified for all exposure pathways considered
44、 at a site.Ecological endpoints become part of the conceptual site model.Exposure pathway/exposure area and combinations of assess-ment and measurement endpoints can be selected from thislarge set for subsequent analysis. Guide E 1689 should beconsulted on procedures for developing the conceptual si
45、temodel.5.4 The following characterize some of the uses or roles ofassessment and measurement endpoints in an ecological riskassessment:5.4.1 Incorporate resources potentially at risk or that requireprotection into the risk assessment process;5.4.2 Complete development of a conceptual site model and
46、problem formulation;5.4.3 Design field and laboratory studies, toxicity tests, andother data collection requirements;5.4.4 Focus site remediation/corrective actions;5.4.5 Evaluate potential efficacy of remedial alternatives/technologies; and5.4.6 Evaluate recovery of impacted populations, commu-niti
47、es, and ecosystems.6. Desirable Characteristics of Assessment andMeasurement Endpoints6.1 Desirable characteristics of assessment endpoints in-clude, but are not limited to, the following (2,3):6.1.1 Relevant to decision-making, local public concerns,and ecological considerations (societal or ecolog
48、ical relevance,or both);6.1.2 Relevant to the site or surrounding area, or both, undercurrent or future land uses, or both (current and futureendpoints may be different);6.1.3 Potentially susceptible to adverse effects from expo-sure to one or more site contaminants or stressors;6.1.4 Consistent wit
49、h the spatial and temporal scale of theaction of stressors present at the site;6.1.5 Address ecological receptors that are expected toreceive higher exposure to site contaminants or stressorsrelative to other ecological receptors;6.1.6 Amenable to hypothesis formulation, evaluation, andprediction; and6.1.7 Value to be protected is clearly defined.6.2 Desirable characteristics of measurement endpoints in-clude, but are not limited to (2,3):6.2.1 Correlated with or can be used to predict or inferchanges in an assessment endpoint;6.2.2 Relevant to the site and/o
