1、Designation: E 2392 05Standard Guide forDesign of Earthen Wall Building Systems1This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 2392; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in pare
2、ntheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 This standard provides guidance for earthen buildingsystems that address both technical requirements and consid-erations for sustainable development
3、. Earthen building systemsinclude adobe, rammed earth, cob, cast earth and other earthtechnologies used as structural and non-structural wall sys-tems.1.1.1 There are many decisions in the design and construc-tion of a building that can contribute to the maintenance ofecosystem components and functi
4、ons for future generations,that is, sustainability. One such decision is the selection ofproducts for use in the building. This standard addressessustainability issues related to the use of earthen wall buildingsystems.1.1.2 The considerations for sustainable development rela-tive to earthen wall bu
5、ilding systems are categorized asfollows: materials (product feedstock); manufacturing process;operational performance (product installed); and indoor envi-ronmental quality (IEQ).1.1.3 The technical requirements for earthen building sys-tems are categorized as follows: design criteria, structural a
6、ndnon-structural systems, and structural and non-structural com-ponents.1.2 This standard does not provide guidance for structuralsupport of roofs made of earthen material.1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of thesafety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is theresponsibilit
7、y of the user of this standard to establish appro-priate safety and health practices and to determine the appli-cability of regulatory limitations prior to use.2. Referenced Documents2.1 ASTM Standards:2C 666/C 666M Test Method for Resistance of Concrete toRapid Freezing and ThawingD 559 Test Method
8、s for Wetting and Drying CompactedSoil-Cement MixturesD 560 Test Methods for Freezing and Thawing CompactedSoil-Cement MixturesD 5860 Test Method for Evaluation of the Effect of WaterRepellent Treatments on Freeze-Thaw Resistance of Hy-draulic Cement Mortar SpecimensD 698 Test Method for Laboratory
9、Compaction Character-istics of Soil Using Standard Effort (12 400 ft-lbf/ft3(60kNm/m3)E 631 Terminology of Building ConstructionE2114 Terminology for Sustainability Relative to the Per-formance of Buildings2.2 ASCE Standards:3ANSI/ASCE 7 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings andOther Structures3. Termi
10、nology3.1 Definitions:3.1.1 For terms related to building construction, refer toTerminology E 631.3.1.2 For terms related to sustainability relative to theperformance of buildings, refer to Terminology E2114. Someof these terms are reprinted here for ease of use.3.1.3 alternative agricultural produc
11、ts, nbio-based indus-trial products (non-food, non-feed) manufactured from agricul-tural materials and animal by-products.3.1.4 biodegradable, adjcapable of decomposing undernatural conditions into elements found in nature.3.1.5 biodiversity, nthe variability among living organ-isms from all sources
12、 including: terrestrial, marine and otheraquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of whichthey are a part; this includes diversity within species, betweenspecies and of ecosystems.3.1.6 ecosystem, ncommunity of plants, animals (includ-ing humans), and their physical environment, functioningto
13、gether as an interdependent unit within a defined area.3.1.7 embodied energy, nthe energy used through the lifecycle of a material or product to extract, refine, process,fabricate, transport, install, commission, utilize, maintain, re-move, and ultimately recycle or dispose of the substancescomprisi
14、ng the item.1This Guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E06 on Performanceof Buildings and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E06.71 on Sustain-ability .Current edition approved Mar. 1, 2005 Published March 2005.2For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.o
15、rg, orcontact ASTM Customer Service at serviceastm.org. For Annual Book of ASTMStandards volume information, refer to the standards Document Summary page onthe ASTM website.3Available from The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 1801Alexander Bell Dr., Reston, VA 20191.1Copyright ASTM Intern
16、ational, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.3.1.7.1 DiscussionThe total energy which a product maybe said to “contain” including all energy used in, inter alia,growing, extracting, transporting and manufacturing. The em-bodied energy of a structure or
17、 system includes the embodiedenergy of its components plus the energy used in construction.3.1.8 renewable resource, na resource that is grown,naturally replenished, or cleansed, at a rate which exceedsdepletion of the usable supply of that resource.3.1.8.1 DiscussionArenewable resource can be exhau
18、stedif improperly managed. However, a renewable resource canlast indefinitely with proper stewardship. Examples include:trees in forests, grasses in grasslands, and fertile soil.3.1.9 sustainability, nthe maintenance of ecosystem com-ponents and functions for future generations.3.1.10 sustainable de
19、velopment, ndevelopment that meetsthe needs of the present without compromising the ability offuture generations to meet their own needs.3.1.11 toxicity, nthe property of a material, or combina-tion of materials, to adversely affect organisms.3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Standard:3.2.1
20、adobe, n(1) unfired masonry units made of soil,water, and straw with or without various admixtures; (2) thesoil/straw or soil/straw/admixtures mix that is used to makethem; (3) the mud plaster used for covering walls or ceilings,or both; (4) the building that is built of adobe and; (5) thearchitectu
21、ral style.3.2.1.1 DiscussionThe word itself is believed to comefrom anArabic word atob, which means muck or sticky glob oratubah “the brick.” The adobe style of architecture migratedfrom NorthAfrica to Spain, so the name adobe is likely to havecome with it. In many other countries, the word adobe is
22、meaningless, and it is more accurate to say “earthen-brick.”Other forms of the same material with different details andnames, such as rammed earth, Pis, Jacal, Barjareque, cob, orpuddled mud are sometimes referred to as adobe.3.2.2 adobe construction, nconstruction in which theexterior load-bearing
23、and the non-load-bearing walls andpartitions are of unfired clay masonry units while the floors,roofs and interior framing may be wholly or partly of wood orother approved materials.3.2.3 adobe, stabilized, nunfired clay masonry units towhich admixtures, such as emulsified asphalt or cement, areadde
24、d during the manufacturing process to help limit waterabsorption and increase durability.3.2.4 adobe, unstabilized, nunfired clay masonry unitsthat do not meet the definition of stabilized adobe.3.2.5 carbon sink, na reservoir that absorbs or takes upreleased carbon from another part of the carbon c
25、ycle.3.2.5.1 DiscussionFor example, if the net exchange be-tween the biosphere and the atmosphere is toward the atmo-sphere, the biosphere is the source, and the atmosphere is thesink3.2.6 cast earth, na construction system utilizing a slurrycontaining soil, calcined gypsum and water, which is poure
26、dinto forms similar to those used for cast-in-place concrete.3.2.7 clay, ninorganic soil with particle sizes less than0.005 mm (0.0002 in.) having the characteristics of high tovery high dry strength, medium to high plasticity and slow tono dilatancy.3.2.8 cob, na construction system utilizing moist
27、 earthenmaterial balls stacked on top of one another and lightly tappedinto place to form monolithic walls. Reinforcing is oftenprovided with organic fibrous materials such as straw andtwigs.3.2.9 earthen building systems, nbuilding systems thatutilize soil as the principal structural material.3.2.1
28、0 energy effcient, adjrefers to a product that requiresless energy to manufacture and/or uses less energy whenoperating in comparison with a benchmark for energy use.3.2.10.1 DiscussionFor example, the product may meet arecognized benchmark, such as the EPAs Energy Star Programstandards.3.2.11 grave
29、l, n inorganic soil with particle sizes greaterthan 2 mm (0.079 in.).3.2.12 horizon, ndistinctive layer of in situ soil havinguniform qualities of color, texture, organic material, oblitera-tion of original rock material, and more.3.2.12.1 DiscussionIn World Reference Base for SoilResources, by the
30、Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations, seven master horizons are recognized H, O,A, E, B, C, and R.3.2.13 indoor environmental quality (IEQ), nrefers to thecondition or state of the indoor built environment in which thebuilding product is installed. Aspects of IEQ include: lightqual
31、ity, acoustic quality, and air quality.3.2.14 loam, nsoil with a high percentage of organicmaterial, particles are predominately silt size but range fromclay size to sand size.3.2.14.1 DiscussionLoams are usually good agriculturalsoils due to their nutritional organic content and their ability tohol
32、d water.3.2.15 manufacturing process, nrefers to the process ofcreating a building product and includes manufacturing, fabri-cation and distribution procedures.3.2.16 materials (product feedstock), nrefers to the mate-rial resources that are required for the manufacture and/orfabrication of a buildi
33、ng product.3.2.16.1 DiscussionMaterial resources include raw mate-rials and recycled content materials.3.2.17 moisture wickingthe capillary uptake of waterfrom foundation soil, ambient humidity or precipitation. Mois-ture wicking can result in saturation of adobe with an accom-panying decrease in st
34、rength and durability.3.2.18 operational performance (product installed),nrefers to the functioning of a product during its service life.Specific measures of operational performance will vary de-pending upon the product. Aspects of operational performanceinclude: durability, maintainability, energy
35、efficiency, and wa-ter efficiency.3.2.19 pressed-block, na construction system that consistsof walls made from earthen materials formed in a block moldby the compacting of lightly moistened earth into a hardenedmass.E23920523.2.20 rammed earth, na construction system that con-sists of walls made fro
36、m moist, sandy soil, or stabilized soil,which is tamped into forms.3.2.20.1 DiscussionWalls of unstabilized soil are usuallya minimum of 300 mm (12 in.) thick for load bearing purposes.Soils for rammed earth construction usually contain about30 % clay and 70 % sand.3.2.21 sand, ninorganic soil with
37、particle sizes rangingfrom 0.05 to 2.0 mm (0.002 to 0.079 in.).3.2.22 silt, ninorganic soil with particle sizes rangingfrom 0.005 to 0.05 mm (0.0002 to 0.002 in.) having thecharacteristics of low dry strength, low plasticity, and rapiddilatancy.3.2.23 straw, nan agricultural waste product that is th
38、edry stems of cereal grains after the seed heads have beenremoved.3.2.24 straw-clay, na construction system that consists ofclay slip and straw, of which straw makes up a high percentageby volume.3.2.24.1 DiscussionThis system is well suited for manu-facturing bricks, floor blocks, and insulating pa
39、nels4. Summary of Practice4.1 This guide identifies the principles of sustainabilityassociated with earthen building systems. Additionally, itoutlines technical issues associated with earthen buildingsystems, identifying those that are similar to construction thatis commonly used in the marketplace.
40、4.2 This guide is intended for use in framing decisions forindividual projects.4.3 This guide is intended for use in framing decisions fordevelopment of standards and building codes for earthenbuilding systems.5. Significance and Use5.1 Historical Overview: Earthen building systems havebeen used thr
41、oughout the world for thousands of years. Adobeconstruction dates back to the walls of Jericho (now located inIsrael) which was built around 8300 B.C. Many other earthenstructures have been functioning for hundreds of years. How-ever, with the development of newer building materials,earthen building
42、 systems have been largely abandoned in partof the world where they were once commonly used.5.2 Sustainability: As world population continues to riseand people continue to address basic shelter requirements, itbecomes increasingly necessary to promote construction tech-niques with less life cycle im
43、pact on the earth. Earthen buildingsystems are one type of technique that may have a favorablelife cycle impact.5.3 Building Code Impact: Earthen building systems havehistorically not been engineered. The first written standards foradobe were developed in the United States in the 1930s andwere based
44、 on common construction practices. Only during thelast 20 years have architects and engineers attempted toengineer adobe and rammed earth for use and compliance withcontemporary building codes. Standards for the use of adobewere initially limited to local and state codes, predominantly inthe southwe
45、stern United States. However, over time regionaland national model building codes adopted provisions foradobe construction. For example, the International BuildingCode (IBC)4provides empirical requirements allowing the useof adobe when the applicant follows specific procedures. NewMexico building co
46、de provides empirical requirements for theuse of both adobe and rammed earth building systems. Wherethe building code does not specifically address earthen buildingsystems, governing agencies frequently classify the construc-tion as an alternative material, design, or method of construc-tion. An alt
47、ernative material, design, or method of constructionwill be approved when the code official finds that the proposeddesign is satisfactory and complies with the intent of theprovisions of the code and that the material, method or workoffered is, for the purpose intended, at least the equivalent oftha
48、t prescribed in the code in quality, strength, effectiveness,fire resistance, durability and safety. However, development ofstandards such as this can aid in the appropriate recognitionand adoption of earthen building systems materials and meth-ods by building codes and code enforcement agencies.5.4
49、 Audience: There are existing markets in the UnitedStates and internationally using adobe, rammed earth, andother earthen building systems. It is estimated that 40 % of theworlds population lives in earthen dwellings5. Safety, func-tionality, and sustainability of earthen building systems cangreatly be improved through establishment of an internationaldesign standard. Intended users of this standard guide include:planners, developers, architects, engineers, interior designers,general contractors, subcontractors, owners, financial organi
