1、Designation: F 1209 89 (Reapproved 1999)Standard Guide forEcological Considerations for the Use of OilspillDispersants in Freshwater and Other Inland Environments,Ponds and Sloughs1This standard is issued under the fixed designation F 1209; the number immediately following the designation indicates
2、the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 This guide covers the use of oilspill dispersan
3、ts to assistin the control of oil spills. The guide is written with the goal ofminimizing the environmental impacts of oil spills; this goal isthe basis on which the recommendations are made. Aestheticand socio-economic factors are not considered, although theseand other factors are often important
4、in spill response.1.2 Spill responders have available several means to controlor clean-up spilled oil. In this guide, the use of dispersants isgiven equal consideration with other spill countermeasures. Itis not considered as a “last resort” after all other methods havefailed.1.3 This is a general g
5、uide only. It assumes the oil to bedispersible and the dispersant to be effective, available, appliedcorrectly, and in compliance with relevant government regula-tions. In the assessment of environmental sensitivity, it isassumed that the dispersant is nonpersistent in the naturalenvironment. Oil, a
6、s used in this guide, includes crude oils andrefined petroleum products. Differences between individualdispersants or between different oil products are not consid-ered.1.4 The guide is organized by habitat type, for example,small ponds and lakes, rivers and streams, and land. Itconsiders the use of
7、 dispersants primarily to protect habitatsfrom impact (or to minimize impacts) and to clean them aftera spill takes place.1.5 This guide applies only to freshwater and other inlandenvironments. It does not consider the direct application ofdispersants to subsurface waters.1.6 In making dispersant us
8、e decisions, appropriate govern-ment authorities should be consulted as required by law.1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of thesafety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is theresponsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-priate safety and health practices
9、 and determine the applica-bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.2. Significance and Use2.1 This guide is meant to aid local and regional responseteams who may use it during spill response planning and spillevents.2.2 This guide should be adapted to site specific circum-stance.3. Environment
10、 CoveredPonds and Sloughs3.1 Ponds and sloughs are small isolated water bodies thatare not part of major water systems. They have a dynamicecology, and a wide mixture of animal and plant species. Innorthern regions, these water bodies may freeze to the bottomand do not sustain a wide variety of aqua
11、tic species.3.2 While most of these bodies are naturally occurring andexist throughout the year, some may be man-made. In aridclimates, the existence of these bodies may be seasonal.3.3 The characteristics of these water bodies are:(a) Open water area of less than 10 hectares,(b) Shallow water with
12、a maximum depth of 1 to 1.5 m,(c) Soft bottom with a high organic content,(d) May have alkaline or acidic water,(e) No well defined inlet or outlet, and(f) Poorly defined shoreline consisting of floating mats ofvegetation.4. Background4.1 The effects of oil and dispersed oil on these aquaticenvironm
13、ents have been the subject of numerous studies. Thestudies have involved both intentional experimental spills andstudies undertaken during actual spill situations (1-5).24.2 There have been a number of studies on the impact of oiland oil/dispersant mixtures on microbiological systems (6-15).4.3 The
14、principal biotic components of such water bodiesare a variety of fauna and flora. The aquatic flora includebacteria, algae, (planktonic and attached), and floating orsubmerged vascular plants. Terrestrial flora include grasses,moss, lichens, herbs, forbs, and woody plants.4.4 The fauna include inver
15、tebrates, (zooplankton, mol-luscs, crustaceans, worms, and other similar species), fish, avariety of waterfowl, (ducks, loons, gulls, terns, and herons),1This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F-20 on HazardousSubstances and Oil Spill Responseand is the direct responsibility of Subco
16、mmitteeF20.13 on Treatment.Current edition approved Feb. 24, 1989. Published April 1989.2The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end ofthis guide.1Copyright ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.mammals, such as beaver and mus
17、krat, and in many areas,significant human activity. The distribution and composition ofspecies is a function of climate, local geography and soil type,and human use of the area (16).4.5 Studies of the effects of oil on vegetation includelaboratory work on the effects on willows, moss, lichen, blacks
18、pruce, and sedge. These studies showed that the pouring of oildirectly on the vegetation was lethal to willow and moss, andcaused some nonpermanent damage to the other species(17-26).4.6 Floating leaves are wetted and penetrated by oil fromslicks while younger leaves whose cuticles are intact are mo
19、reresistant to penetration by oil. Penetration occurs most readilyin areas where there is damage to the leaf caused by insects ormechanical abrasion.4.7 Oil is retained in areas of dense vegetation and isreleased slowly. Dispersants applied soon after a spill appear tospeed the movement of the slick
20、 through the vegetation if thereis some water movement. Only the oil that contacts the leavescauses some damage. Leaves and stems that are subsurface arenot damaged by the presence of oil. Oil slicks that are restrictedto contact of the stem areas near the water surface are not veryinjurious.4.8 Fie
21、ld studies in northern environments have shown littlelong term effects of spilled oil. There have been few studies onthe effects of dispersed oil in these environments.4.9 Although oil may cause extensive damage to vegetationgrowing in low lying wetlands and shorelines of bog lakes,plants that grow
22、from rhizomes or healthy portions of aerialtissue (sedge and willow), have a high recovery potential. Longterm damage to root systems could however slow recovery ofthe vegetation in impacted areas. This may be of less impor-tance in areas with an elevated water table (bog lakes).4.10 Laboratory stud
23、ies of the foliar damage to moss,lichen, willow, blackspruce and sedge, by dispersants indicatesome damage, but this is generally not lethal. Many dispersantsare fast acting contact poisons, but their activity is limited tothe site of application. Plants treated with dispersants recoverin most cases
24、. However foliar damage may increase the plantssusceptibility to pathogens.4.11 Field studies on the effects of the direct spraying ofplants with dispersants indicated that the short term effect ofdispersants to individual plants was less than that incurredthrough natural causes. No long term effect
25、s were found andseasonal growth was not affected.4.12 Studies of the effects of dispersants and dispersed oilon the microbiological community show that the characteristicsof the dispersant are critical. The dispersant should have noeffect on the biodegradation of the oil. This is true of manycurrent
26、ly used dispersants. The dispersant itself should have noresidues or components toxic to microbes or microbial pro-cesses.5. General Considerations for Making Dispersant UseDecisions5.1 The dispersant use decision is, in this case as mostothers, one of trade-offs. The use of dispersants can reduce t
27、headverse effects of spilled oil on certain biological species at theexpense of other components of the ecosystem.5.2 In most cases the mortality of individual creatures is ofless concern than the destruction of habitat. The repopulationof areas after the spill will occur naturally when an areabecom
28、es a suitable habitat for a given species.6. Recommendations6.1 Dispersant use in ponds and sloughs, and their borderingvegetation, should be considered if a spill poses a significantthreat to indigenous wildlife or its habitat. In evaluating thepotential for dispersant use, consideration should be
29、given tothe alternatives of leaving the oil untreated or the use ofmechanical recovery equipment. In many cases, a spill re-sponse operation can cause serious damage to a pond or sloughhabitat, or a disruption of nesting and breeding activities.7. Keywords7.1 dispersants; environmental sensitivity;
30、freshwater; in-land; oil spill; oilspill dispersants; ponds; sloughsREFERENCES(1) Miller, M. C., Vestal, J. R., Mozley, S., Butler, M., and Hobbie, J. E.,“Effects of Prudhoe Crude Oil Spills on Coastal Tundra Ponds,”Energy/Environment II. U.S. EPA-600/9-77-012, 1977, pp. 521529.(2) Nagy, E., Scott,
31、B. F., and Hart, J., “The Fate of Oil and Oil-Dispersant Mixtures in Freshwater Ponds,” Science of the TotalEnvironment, Vol. 35, No. 2, 1984, pp. 115133.(3) Scott, B. F., and Glooschenko, V., “Impact of Oil and Oil-DispersantMixtures on Flora and Water Chemistry in Freshwater Ponds,” Scienceof the
32、Total Environment, Vol 35, No. 2, 1984, pp. 169190.(4) Scott, B. F., Nagy, E., Sherry, J. P., Dutka, B. J., Glooschenko, V.,Snow, N. B., and Wade, P. J., “Ecological Effects of Oil-DispersantMixtures in Fresh Water,” Proceedings of 1979 Oil Spill Conference,Los Angeles, pp. 565571.(5) Snow, N. B., a
33、nd Scott, B. F., “The Effect and Fate of Crude Oil Spillon Two Arctic Lakes,” Proceedings of 1975 Oil Spill Conference, SanFrancisco, pp. 527534.(6) Bergstein, P. E., and Vestal, J. R., “Crude Oil Biodegradation in ArcticTundra Ponds,” Arctic, Vol 31, No. 3, 1978, pp. 158169.(7) Atlas, R. M., and Bu
34、sdosh, M., “Microbial Degradation of Petroleumin the Arctic,” Proceedings of the Third International BiodegradationSymposium, Applied Science, eds. J. M. Sharpley and A. M. Kaplan,1976, pp. 7985.(8) Breuil, C., and Shindler, D. B., “Effects of Crude Oil on Bacterial andFungal Populations in Fresh Wa
35、ter Artificial Ponds,” (Abstract),Annual Meeting of American Society for Microbiology 77, 1977, p.269.(9) Dutka, B. J., Sherry, J., Scott, B. F., and Kwan, K. K.,“ Effects ofOil-Dispersant Mixtures on Fresh Water Microbial Populations,”Canadian Research, Vol 13, No. 5, 1980, pp. 5862.(10) Federle, T
36、. W., Vestal, J. R., Hater, G. R., and Miller, M. C., “Effectsof Prudhoe Bay Crude Oil on Primary Production and Zooplankton inArctic Tundra Thaw Ponds,” Marine Environmental Research, Vol 2,No. 1, 1979, pp. 318.(11) Miller, M. C., Alexander, V., and Barsdate, R. J., “The Effects of OilSpills on Phy
37、toplankton in an Arctic Lake and Ponds,” Arctic, Vol 31,No. 3, 1978, pp. 192218.F 12092(12) Miller, M. C., Hater, G. R., and Vestal, J. R., “Effect of PrudhoeCrude Oil on Carbon Assimilation by Planktonic Algae in an ArcticPond,” Environmental Chemistry and Cycling Processes: Proceed-ings of a Sympo
38、sium, April 28 to May 1, 1976, Augusta, GA.(13) Scott, B. F., and Shindler, D. B., “Impact of Crude Oil on PlanktonicFreshwater Ecosystems,” Proceedings of the Conference on Assess-ment of Ecological Impacts of Oil Spills, American Institute ofBiological Sciences, Arlington, VA, 1978, pp. 712734.(14
39、) Shindler, D. B., Scott, B. F., and Carlisle, D. B., “Effect of Crude Oilon Populations of Bacteria and Algae in Artificial Ponds Subject toWinter Weather and Ice Formation,” Verhlug International VereinLimnologie, Vol 19, No. 5, 1975, pp. 21382144.(15) Stanley, D. W., “Productivity of Epipelic Alg
40、ae in Tundra Ponds anda Lake near Barrow, Alaska,” Ecology, Vol 57, No. 5, 1976, pp.10151024.(16) Mozley, S. C., and Butler, M. G., “Effects of Crude Oil on AquaticInsects of Tundra Ponds,” Arctic, Vol 31, No. 3, 1978, pp. 229240.(17) Blunden, D., Dale, M., Goudey, S., and Hoddinot, J.,“ The Effects
41、 ofOil Spill Chemicals on Shoreline Plants of Northern FreshwaterEcosystems,” Proceedings of the International Conference on Oiland Freshwater: Chemistry, Biology Technology, ed., J. H. Vander-meulen, Pergamon, pp. 403409.(18) Barsdate, R. J., “Ecologic Changes in an Arctic Tundra PondFollowing Expo
42、sure to Crude Oil,” (Abstract only), Proceedings ofthe Symposium on the Impact of Oil Resource Development onNorthern Plant Communities, 17 August 1972, Institute of ArcticBiology, University of Alaska, 1973, p. 52.(19) Barsdate, R. J., Alexander, V., and Benoit, R. E., “Natural Oil Seepsat Cape Sim
43、pson, Alaska: Aquatic Effects,” Proceedings of theSymposium on Impact of Oil Resource Development on NorthernPlant Communities, 17 August 1972, Institute of Arctic Biology,University of Alaska, 1973, pp. 9195.(20) Goudey, J. S., Dale, M., and Hoddinot, J., “The Effects of Oil SpillChemicals on Trans
44、piration, CO2Exchange and Cuticular Structurein Salix Interior,” Canadian Journal of Botany, Vol 63, No. 12, 1985,pp. 23402344.(21) Goudey, J. S., Dale, M., and Hoddinot, J., “Effects of Oil SpillChemicals on CO2Assimilation by the Fruticose Lichen CladinaMitis,” Freshwater Oilspill Research Project
45、, (FOSRP) Report, EssoResources Canada Limited, Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 1986.(22) Goudey, J. S., Dale, M., and Hoddinot, J.,“ Effects of Crude Oil andChemically Treated Oil on Shoreline Plant Communities of NorthernBog Lakes,” FOSRP Report, Esso Resources Canada Limited,Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 1
46、986.(23) Hutchinson, T. C., and Freedman, W., “Effects of Experimental CrudeOil Spills on Subarctic Boreal Forest Vegetation near Norman Wells,N.W.T., Canada,” Canadian Journal of Botany, Vol 56, No. 19, 1978,pp. 24242433.(24) Helebust, J. A., Hanna, B., Sheath, R. G., Gergis, M., andHutchinson, T.
47、C., “Experimental Crude Oil Spills on a SmallSubarctic Lake in the MacKenzie Valley, N.W.T.: Effects on Phy-toplankton, Periphyton, and Attached Aquatic Vegetation,” Proceed-ings of 1975 Oil Spill Conference, San Francisco, 1975, pp. 509515.(25) Walker, D. A., Webber, P. J., Everett, K. R., and Brow
48、n, J., “Effectsof Crude and Diesel Oil Spills on Plant Communities at Prudhoe Bay,Alaska and the Derivation of Oil Spill Sensitivity Maps,” Arctic,Vol31, No. 3, 1978, pp. 242259.(26) Wein, R. W., and Bliss, L. C., “Experimental Crude Oil Spills onArctic Plant Communities,” Journal of Applied Ecology
49、, Vol 10, No.3, 1973, pp. 67l682.The American Society for Testing and Materials takes no position respecting the validity of any patent rights asserted in connectionwith any item mentioned in this standard. Users of this standard are expressly advised that determination of the validity of any suchpatent rights, and the risk of infringement of such rights, are entirely their own responsibility.This standard is subject to revision at any time by the responsible technical committee and must be reviewed every five years andif not revised, either reapproved or withdrawn.
