1、Drought Preparedness and ResponseAWWA MANUAL M60First EditionCopyright 2011 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.MANUAL OF WATER SUPPLY PRACTICES M60, First EditionDrought Preparedness and ResponseCopyright 2011 American Water Works AssociationAll rights reserved. No part of this pu
2、blication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information or retrieval system, except in the form of brief excerpts or quotations for review purposes, without the written permission of the publisher.Disclaimer
3、The authors, contributors, editors, and publisher do not assume responsibility for the validity of the content or any consequences of its use. In no event will AWWA be liable for direct, indirect, special, incidental, or consequential damages arising out of the use of information presented in this b
4、ook. In particular, AWWA will not be responsible for any costs, including, but not limited to, those incurred as a result of lost revenue. In no event shall AWWAs liability exceed the amount paid for the purchase of this book.Project Manager/Senior Technical Editor: Melissa ValentineProduction Edito
5、r/Cover Design: Cheryl ArmstrongManuals Specialist: Molly BeachCover Photograph: Oroville Lake, Calif.Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataBrown, Christopher, 1956-Drought preparedness and response / Christopher Brown, Brian Skeens.p. cm.“M60.”ISBN-13: 978-1-58321-854-9ISBN-10: 1-58321-
6、854-81. Water-supply-United States-Management. 2. Droughts-United States-Management. I. Skeens, Brian. II. American Water Works Association. III. Title. TD223.B76 2011363.34929-dc232011018043Printed in the United States of AmericaAmerican Water Works Association6666 West Quincy Ave.Denver, CO 80235
7、Printed on recycled paperCopyright 2011 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.iiiContentsAcknowledgments, ixIntroduction, xiStep 1 Form a Water Shortage Response Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Selecting the Water Shortage Response Team, 1Setting Priorities, 3E
8、stablishing Schedules and Maintaining Momentum, 4Coordination, Cooperation, and Communication, 5Step 2 Forecast Supply in Relation to Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7Data Collection, 8Data Analysis, 10Is There a Predicted Shortage?, 12Actions by Water Wholesalers, 13Catastro
9、phic Supply Interruptions, 14Step 3 Balance Supply and Demand and Assess Mitigation Options . . . . .17Supply Augmentation Methods, 17Step 4 Establish Triggering Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35Trigger Mechanisms, 35Step 5 Develop a Staged Demand Reducti
10、on Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41Establish Stages, 41Step 6 Adopt the Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51Involve the Community, 51Step 7 Implement the Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11、. . . . . . . .55Essential Elements of Implementing a Water Shortage Contingency Plan, (WSCP), 55Conclusions, 60Appendix A, 63Index, 67List of Manuals, 71Copyright 2011 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.This page intentionally blank.Copyright 2011 American Water Works Association
12、. All Rights Reserved.vFiguresFigure 2-1 C.W. Bill Young Regional Reservoir, Tampa Bay Water, full in 2005 .9Figure 2-2 C.W. Bill Young Regional Reservoir, Tampa Bay Water, empty in 2009 9Figure 3-1 Public awareness campaign .21Figure 3-2 Water Saving Hero campaign .21Figure 3-3 San Diego County Wat
13、er Authoritys Twenty-Gallon Challenge 22Figure 3-4 Cobb County Pick 10 Challenge .22Figure 3-5 Save Our Water campaign 23Figure 3-6 I Love Water campaign, Portland, Ore. .23Figure 3-7 2000 PumpingSan Antonio .26Figure 4-1 Delaware River Basin Storage Levels .36Figure 5-1 1996 PumpingSan Antonio .48F
14、igure 7-1 Monitoring targeted vs. actual water production 60Copyright 2011 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.This page intentionally blank.Copyright 2011 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.viiTablesTable 2-1 Example reduction in supplemental supplies over time
15、12Table 2-2 Cascading effect of catastrophes 14Table 3-1 Supply Augmentation Methods .18Table 3-2 Programs Adopted by Retail Water Suppliers during California Drought 19761977 29Table 3-3 Health that is, all water users are experiencing a similar service level and degree of involvement or sacrifice.
16、Given clear, timely, and specific information on supply conditions and the neces-sary actions to forestall increased reductions, customers prefer the opportunity to meet targeted demand reduction levels through voluntary compliance measures. The decision to move to mandatory restrictions is more acc
17、eptable if the voluntary approach has been tried first but has not resulted in enough demand reduction to ensure public health, safety, and environmental protection through the projected duration of the shortage.Priorities for use of available water in a community, while varying in order from place
18、to place, may be established as follows:1. Health and Safetyinterior residential, fire fighting, health care facilities2. Commercial, Industrial, and Institutionalmaintain economic base, protect jobs3. Environmentreduce losses to natural resources4. Permanent Cropstake five to ten years to replace5.
19、 Annual Cropsprotect jobs6. Landscapingprotect jobs, maintain established trees and shrubs 7. New Demandgenerally, two years of construction projects are already ap-provedCopyright 2011 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.4 DROUGHT PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSEFlorida Prioritizes Deman
20、d Reduction ActionsFlorida has established a process to prioritize demand reduction actions. On April 17, 2007, Florida released the Florida Drought Action Plan. Each of the five water man-agement districts in Florida approves plans and rules for addressing water shortages. Concern in Florida has ri
21、sen, as November 2005 to March 2007 ranked as the third driest period in the states recorded history. The goal of Florida is to monitor and assess data from the five water management districts, coordinate drought manage-ment activities, communicate with decision makers and others, and take actions t
22、o reduce adverse effects. An interesting and useful component of the Florida Drought Action Plan is the Recommended Water Conservation Alternatives table. It presents the various agricultural and urban water conservation alternatives and ascribes a priority rating based on the potential amount of wa
23、ter to be saved, the cost effective-ness of the measure, and the ease of implementation. Conservation rate structures, incentives, statewide irrigation design and installation standards, and metering of reclaimed water services are some of the high priority measures.Denver Water Adopts Drought Princ
24、iplesIn 2002, the Board of Water Commissioners adopted a policy stating that Denver Waters goal for drought response is to preserve the quality of public life and eco-nomic activity to the extent possible in the face of a water shortage. The Drought Response Plan outlines specific measures designed
25、to maximize available water sup-plies and minimize water use. Because every drought is different, the Board can adjust and refine drought response measures based on actual conditions.Denver Waters prime response to drought is to budget water use so supplies will be available for the most essential u
26、ses. The water use restrictions imposed during the 20022003 drought indicated that no single “silver bullet” was effective at encouraging all customers to reduce water use. Instead, a “basket of programs”restrictions, surcharges, enforcement, incentives, and monitoring and evaluationis recommended t
27、o create an overall atmosphere that encourages water savings.The Board adopted a set of principles to guide the development of drought restrictions.1. Avoid irretrievable loss of natural resources.2. Restrict less essential uses before essential uses.3. Affect individuals or small groups before affe
28、cting large groups or the public as a whole, allowing as much public activity as possible to be unaffected.4. Minimize adverse financial effects on the community.5. Eliminate water waste.ESTABLISHING SCHEDULES AND MAINTAINING MOMENTUM _In most cases, implementing a water shortage response program wi
29、ll require three to six months of dedicated effort. For instance, if rationing is planned to take effect on May 1, the water shortage response team would need to begin work by November 1 of the previous year, or by February at the latest. Step 7 contains a detailed implementa-tion schedule that can
30、be used to set completion dates for each plan element.Copyright 2011 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.FORM A WATER SHORTAGE RESPONSE TEAM 5COORDINATION, COOPERATION, AND COMMUNICATION _The development of a good plan is contingent upon coordination, cooperation, and com-municatio
31、n within the agency, with the community, and among local and regional agen-cies. The following are some items for the team to consider: Establish a community advisory committee. If the water supplier is a city or county, include departments such as parks, fire, and the office of emergency services.
32、Organize meetings with sanitary districts, local cities, counties, Native Ameri-can tribes, and water suppliers, regional heath and water quality boards, etc. Establish a regional public communication program. If others use the same water sources, coordinate withdrawals and pumping quantity and timi
33、ng.Copyright 2011 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.This page intentionally blank.Copyright 2011 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.7AWWA MANUALM60Step 2Forecast Supply in Relation to DemandSupply and demand data are needed as a basis for planning and estimatin
34、g how much water of acceptable quality will be available under various shortage conditions, includ-ing multi-year short ages. Pumping and pipeline capacity also are considered in this step. Calculating projected demand, including increases because of growth and less precipitation, will be balanced a
35、gainst projected supply. The best time to initiate this process is before a shortage occurs.Water shortage contingency planning includes a process of defining possible responses to an array of “what-if?” scenarios. Good planning backed by accurate data produces wise decisions when faced with specifi
36、c situations.However, what once was considered a good prediction based on historical data now has a new level of uncertainty. In todays world, water managers can no longer assume stationarity. That is, the raw data upon which projections have been based in the past is no longer stationary, but varie
37、s considerably over time and cannot alone be used to project future conditions. The new reality is the increased variability of precipitation. More suppliers are considering the potential effect of climate change when determining the reliability of their water supply.Water suppliers will want to inc
38、orporate increased uncertainty when implement-ing the following procedure. Limiting planning to the drought of record may no longer be sufficient. The possibility of back-to-back drought periods that do not allow time to replenish regular and emergency supplies should be considered.Information about
39、 both historical and current conditions is necessary. Historical data can be used to generate a reasonably precise definition of normal versus drought characteristics. A review of the current supply is used to estimate how much water of acceptable quality will probably be available. Historical and c
40、urrent data are used to Copyright 2011 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.8 DROUGHT PREPAREDNESS AND RESPONSEcreate water shortage scenarios. These scenarios account for shortage periods exceed-ing the drought of record by one or more years. This step reviews the data needed to as
41、sess possible water shortage scenarios and provides the calculations necessary for interpreting the data. Figures 2-1 and 2-2 illustrate what can happen to a reservoir during a drought.DATA COLLECTION _Data concerning permitted water resource allocations, water purchase agreements, water supply, tre
42、atment flexibility, distribution system, and customer characteristics are compiled and used for building a shortage-planning database. General categories of information include:Supply Data Facilities data maximum sustained pumping rates, pipeline capacities, etc. Local supply status Supply allocatio
43、n and forecast from water wholesalers and other sources Stream flow Reservoir levels Groundwater table elevations and quality by elevation Precipitation records and forecasts (rainfall and snowpack) Surface water elevations and quality by elevation Production records (minimum of five years) and fore
44、casts Contingency agreements for supplemental supplies from regional water agen-cies or neighboring water suppliersThe National Drought Mitigation Center (NDMC) at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, in collaboration with other federal agencies, hosts the U.S. Drought Monitor, a map of the U.S. wit
45、h a graphic display of the intensity of drought in various regions and a summary of drought conditions. The NDMC also provides useful information about drought planning and climate change. The Web site address is http:/www.drought.unl.edu/. The associated Desert Research Institute and Western Region
46、al Climate Center is another good climatology resource with their Climate Tracker, which can be found at http:/www.wrcc.dri.edu/.Two of the most comprehensive sources of climatological information are available at the U.S. Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-tions Nati
47、onal Weather Service Web site at: http:/www.weather.gov and the U.S. Geo-logical Survey (USGS) Web site at: http:/ca.water.usgs.gov/.Many states now offer data specific to their particular conditions. For example, the California Water Supply Outlook from the DWR California Data Exchange Center at ht
48、tp:/cdec.water.ca.gov/ comple ments the USGS publication in that it presents cur-rent California data on hydrologic conditions such as snowpack, runoff, and reservoir storage and is published twice monthly. Water Conditions in California provides cur-rent information and runoff forecasts for the wat
49、er year and is available at http:/water-supplyconditions.water.ca.gov/. Demand DataWater use data is needed by month (or as often as is available) for each customer for at least the last five years. This data is used to assess demand for individual customer and customer class, the average use by month, by season, and by year. The following data is needed to assess demand:Copyright 2011 American Water Works Associa
