1、ICAO CIRCULARt241 tt 4841416 0027942 315 _ - CIRCULAR 241-AN1145 ICAO CIRCULAR HUMAN FACTORS DIGEST No. 8 HUMAN FACTORS IN AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL Appvvi? by the Secretary General and pubiiski under his authority INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION I MONTREAL CANADA COPYRIGHT International Civil A
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10、OrganizationLicensed by Information Handling ServicesICA0 CIRCULAR*24L * W 484L4Lb 0027944 198 W TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction . Chapter 1 . The Evolution of Air Traffic Control . Human Factors within systems . Matching human and machine . TheSHELModel . The evolution of air traffic control Th
11、e future of air traffic control Transfer of information . . . Chapter 2 . The Controllers Workspace Application of ergonomic data . Buildings Roomlayout Suites . Towers Anthropometry Console profile Layout and responsibilities The physical environment Visual displays Input devices . Minimum acceptab
12、le conditions .Communications . Controller proficiency Classes of information . Chapter 3 . Automation in Air Traffic Control Full or partial automation . Reasons for automation . Goals of automation Constraints . The appliation of automation Further implications of automation Team functions Standar
13、dization Human-machine interface and human error Chapter 4 . The Selection and Training of Air Traffic Controllers . Selection of applicants . Tests . Otherdata . Training . Training content and teaching . Aspects of training Training and system changes 1 2 7 7 7 7 8 8 9 9 11 11 13 14 15 15 16 17 19
14、 19 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 25 27 27 27 28 28 29 30 31 COPYRIGHT International Civil Aviation OrganizationLicensed by Information Handling ServicesICA0 CIRCULAR*241 * W 4B4141b 0027945 024 W ii) ICA O Circular 24 1 -AN4 45 Chapter 5 . The Human Element . Specific Attributes Recognition of their signifi
15、cance : Stress . Boredom . . Confidence and complacency . Error prevention . Fatigue Needsatwork Att.udes Functionsoffeeamc . individual differences . A generat Human Factors view Appendix . List of Recommended Reading Page 33 33 33 34 35 35 36 37 37 38 38 39 41 COPYRIGHT International Civil Aviatio
16、n OrganizationLicensed by Information Handling ServicesICAO CIRCULAR*241 * W 4841416 O027946 TbO W INTRODUCTION 1. This digest deals with Human Faetors issues related to air traffic control (ATC). Its objective is to provide practical Human Factors guidance to those concerned with ATC systems. It is
17、 intended to show how human capabilities and limitations can influence task performance and safety. Sources of Human Factors knowledge are also identified. The target audience includes air traffic controllers and supervisors, ATC managers and planners, civil aviation administrators and equipment des
18、igners. The digest also seeks to provide information that is useful for the whole international aviation community and to introduce the non- specialist to Human Factors issues relevant to ATC. 2. This digest contains the following: Chapter 7 describes the evolution of ATC, including a brief account
19、of how to consider Human Factors within a system; Chapter2 deals with requirements associated with the design of controllers workspaces and makes recommendations about them; Chapter 3 explains the Human Factors issues raised by the introduction of automated equipment into ATC workstations; Chapter 4
20、 outlines selection criteria for controllers and discusses issues regarding air traffic controller training; Chapter 5 considers specific human attributes relevant to ATC systems; and the Appendix provides a list of references and recommended reading. 3. This digest was prepared with the guidance an
21、d assistance of the ICAO Flight Safety and Human Factors Study Group. The original draft was prepared by Study Group Advisor Mr. V. David Hopkin, Human Factors consultant to the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority. 4. The other digests in this series are: Digest No. 1 - Fundamental Human Factors
22、 Concepts (Circular 216); Digest No. 2 - Flight Crew Training: Cockpit Resource Management (CM) and Line- Oriented Flight Training (LOFT) (Circular 21 7); Digest No. 3 - Training of Operational Personnel in Human Factors (Circular 227); Digest No. 4 - Proceedings of the ICA0 Human Factors Seminar (C
23、ircular 229); Digest No. 5 - Operational Implications of Aufomation in Advanced Technology Flighf Decks (Circular 234); Digest No. 6 - Ergonomics (Circular 238); and Digest No. 7- Investigation of Human Factors in Accidentsand Incidents (Circular 240). I COPYRIGHT International Civil Aviation Organi
24、zationLicensed by Information Handling ServicesICAO CIRCULAR*241 * = 484L4Lb 0027947 9T7 Chapter 1 THE EVOLUTION OF AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL HUMAN FACTORS WITHIN SYSTEMS 1 .I An ATC system aims to achieve a safe, orderly and expeditious flow of air traffic and is an example of a large human-machine syste
25、m. In such systems, humans interact with machines to fulfil the functions of the system. However, individual humans do not usually all have the same tasks, jobs, equipment or functions, although they may have similar professional training and qualifications. A safe and efficient ATC system must incl
26、ude appropriate technology. It must also have trained and knowledgeable professional air traffic controllers who can understand and use all available facilities to provide a satisfactory ATC service. 1.2 In addition to safety, orderliness and expedition, the ATC system can have several less known ob
27、jectives -.fuel conservation; noise abatement; minimum environmental disturbance; cost effectiveness; impartiality towards all users within the rules and regulations; and the granting of users requests whenever possible. A subsidiary but vital aim is to ensure the continued provision of a workforce
28、of controllers who can fulfil the standards, policies and objectives of ATC with existing and new facilities and equipment. MATCHING HUMAN AND MACHINE 1.3 Most Human Factors issues in ATC are not new but derive from fundamental human capabilities and limitations. Yet Human Factors has to respond to
29、changes that originate elsewhere, for example in increased air traffic demands or technological advancements. The achievement of the full expected benefits of these advancements requires the successful matching of human and machine, so that humans do not impede technical progress because they have b
30、een given tasks beyond their capabilities. The aim of Human Factors in ATC is to match human capabilities and limitations with the specifications and design of the ATC system. This matching of human and system is an active process, the achievement of which may imply changes to either or both. Succes
31、sful matching requires the correct application of the extensive Human Factors data available. 1.4 Human Factors applies knowledge of how human beings perceive, sense, learn, understand, interpret, process, remember and use information, and also applies knowledge of how to measure human performance a
32、nd its effects within a functioning system. Human Factors examines the many ways in which the controller and the system can affect each other, and helps to reveal whether the main influence on events is the structure of the ATC system or the actions of individual controllers. Human Factors knowledge
33、 is applied to ATC to understand and quantify the interactions between the system and the human. It is used to guide how each should adapt to the other and to suggest how human and system requirements that may appear to differ can nevertheless all be met, so that ATC efficiency and safety are optimi
34、zed without harm to the 1. For a complete explanation of the concept of systems, refer to ICAO Human Factors Digest No. 1 - Fundamental Human Factors Concepts, or No. 6 - Ergonomics. 2 COPYRIGHT International Civil Aviation OrganizationLicensed by Information Handling ServicesICAO CIRCULAR*243 * B 4
35、843436 0027948 833 ICAO Circular 241-ANfl45 3 controller. Thus Human Factors knowledge is applied both to effects of the human on the system and to effects of the system on the human. 1.5 The air traffic controller needs to have an understanding of how the air traffic control system has been designe
36、d and can function, in order to interacf with it and contribute the benefits of the controllers professional knowledge. The fundamental reason for applying Human Factors to ATC is to improve safety and help prevent accidents. THE SHEL MODEL 1.6 The SHEL model, described in detail in Human Factors Di
37、gest No. 1, provides a unifying theme throughout this series of ICAO Human Factors digests. The model illustrates the main elements and interactions of Human Factors, and is applied to ATC in this digest. Figure 1-1 illustrates the SHEL model. The central human being - liveware, has four main kinds
38、of interaction: I liveware-hardware: humans and machines including equipment. liveware-software: humans and materials, such as documents, procedures, symbols, etc. liveware-environment: humans and the environment, including factors internal and external to the workplace. liveware-liveware: humans an
39、d other humans, including colleagues. I The objective is to optimize these relationships. The SHEL model can be used to identify problem areas, to trace the origins of specific problems and to define appropriate data collection tasks. m i In this model the match or mismatch of the blocks (interface)
40、 is just as important as lhe characteristics of the blocks lhemsehes. A misma!ch can be a source of human error. S =Software (procedures, symbology, etc.) H =Hardware (machine) E = Environmenf L = Liveware (human) Figure 1-1. The SHEL model (adapted from Hawkins, 1975) COPYRIGHT International Civil
41、Aviation OrganizationLicensed by Information Handling ServicesICAO CIRCULARr241 %* 4841416 0027949 77T = 4 ICA0 Circular 24 1 -AN/l45 1.7 Throughout the digest, various Human Factors topics are discussed separately as a convenient way to describe them. In practice, these topics are never separate bu
42、t always interact significantly with each other. No real-life Human Factors issue in ATC can ever be addressed completely under a single heading. For example, any ATC workspace specification will have implications for task design, performance, skill and error, and probabiy also for training and team
43、 functions. The SHEL model includes the main interactions between the human and other aspects of the system, but there can be second and third order interactions also. For example, what a controller (liveware) actually sees on a display can depend on which information is displayed (hardware), how ap
44、propriate it is for the task (software), whether it is obscured by glare (environment) and what the controller is expecting to see after conversing with the pilot (liveware). THE EVOLUTION OF AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL 1.8 Although there was some air traffic after the First World War, not until the Second
45、World War did it become necessary to start to regulate it on a globat scale. Technological advances affected aircraft design and manufacture as well as control equipment installed on the ground in response to the increase in traffic. Airfields able to handle large numbers of aircraft had been built,
46、 and the need to reach agreements to control air traffic became urgent. At an international convention in 1944, governments drafted agreements on principles. and arrangements to develop international civil aviation in a safe and orderly manner. On 4 April 1947, this convention was ratified, and ICAO
47、 - the International Civil Aviation Organization - came into being. Under its auspices, Rules of the Air and Air Traffic Services were established. 1.9 The airspace round our globe is divided into flight information regions (FIRS) within which States are responsible for providing air traffic service
48、s (ATS). Each FIR is divided into controlled and uncontrolled airspace. ATC service is provided for aircraft within airspace classes A to E. The primary objective of ATC is to prevent collisions between aircraft, and the second obiective is to maintain and expedite an orderly flow of air traffic. In
49、 addition, the ATC service provides information for the safe and efficient conduct of flight, and assists any aircraft in an emergency. 1.10 certain aerodromes. There are three main categories of air traffic control: Controlled airspace (airspace classes A to E) comprises control areas and control zones round area control, for flights en route through an area; approach control, for aircraft bound for an airport from the point at which the area control centre (ACC) hands over the flight; aerodrome control, responsible for landings, movements on
