1、I C A OC I R C U L A RI N T E R N A T I O N A LC I V I L A V I A T I O NO R G A N I Z A T I O NMONTREAL CANADACIRCULAR 302-AN/1752004HUMAN FACTORS DIGESTNo. 16CROSS-CULTURAL FACTORSIN AVIATION SAFETYApproved by the Secretary Generaland published under his authorityCopyright International Civil Aviat
2、ion Organization Provided by IHS under license with ICAONot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS-,-,-(i) TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3、 . . . . 1 Chapter 1. Culture, context and cultural interfaces in aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Culture and context . . . . . . . . . .
4、. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Cultural interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5、. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Chapter 2. The safety case for cultural interfaces in aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6、. . . 13 The SHEL model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Reasons model of latent conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Cultural interfaces and the Threat and
7、Error Management model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Chapter 3. A dominant model in aviation: some consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8、. . . 22 Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Markets and standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Research and technology . . .
9、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Global consequences of weighted interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Interactions at weighted cultural interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Chapter 4. The way forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11、31 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Raising awareness: It takes two to tango . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Data-driven research . . . . . . . . . .
12、. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Cultural mediators: An indispensable component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Summary and conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13、. . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 References and additional reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 _Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization Provided by IHS under license with ICAONot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking perm
14、itted without license from IHS-,-,-1 INTRODUCTION OBJECTIVE The objective of this digest is to provide the participants in the decision-making process in the aviation industry including regulatory authorities and airline personnel with an awareness of cultural interfaces and the impact of cross-cult
15、ural factors on aviation safety. While the digest suggests possible avenues of action, it does not however propose solutions, because these solutions will only emerge as consequences of cross-cultural research in operational settings. AUDIENCE The digest is aimed at managers of both civil aviation a
16、dministrations and the airline industry, including airline operational and training managers. The target audience also includes regulatory bodies, safety and investigation agencies and training establishments, as well as senior and middle non-operational airline management. WHY THIS DIGEST IS IMPORT
17、ANT Cross-cultural interactions are a daily occurrence in international civil aviation, but their real significance to aviation safety is only marginally understood. In the absence of clear understanding, the safety issues underlying cross-cultural interactions are either ignored or incomplete assum
18、ptions about their significance are made. Disturbingly, some of these incomplete assumptions are acted upon. Therefore, the first step is to define and analyse the safety cases potentially underlying cross-cultural interactions and cultural interfaces in international civil aviation; specifically, t
19、o identify those areas with the greatest potential to threaten the safety and efficiency of aviation operations. Decision-makers in international civil aviation will find in this digest the basic information to guide them in defining and analysing these safety cases. SUMMARY OF THE DIGEST Chapter 1
20、provides the background on culture, context and cultural interfaces in aviation. Chapter 2 presents the safety case for cultural interfaces in aviation safety by using the SHEL model, the Reasons model of latent conditions, and the Threat and Error Management (TEM) model. Chapter 3 discusses the evo
21、lution of a dominant model or way of doing things in aviation and highlights both the positive and negative consequences of that dominance with regard to cultural interfaces. Chapter 4 proposes a way forward through two solutions: a) raise awareness of cultural interfaces and their threat potential
22、among various aviation personnel, including those who shape the dominant model; and Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization Provided by IHS under license with ICAONot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS-,-,-2 ICAO Circular 302-AN/175 b) collect syst
23、ematic data in the operating context of different regions around the world in order to quantify the risks posed by different cultural interfaces and to understand local adaptations to the dominant model. BACKGROUND Unlike no other technology before or since, aviation is responsible for creating the
24、“global village”. It is now possible to reach any part of the world by air, and to do so in previously unimaginable time. Whereas international travel had previously been a privilege of the wealthy elite or the adventurer, the world today is accessible to more and more people. Business, leisure, eve
25、n religious pilgrimages are now achieved with the help of air travel. Aviation has changed the way we think about the world and about what is possible in the world. Civil aviation is the global success that it is today because of its dedication to improving safety. This pursuit of improved standards
26、 has advanced the industry in several directions. First and foremost, brilliant minds have created ever more sophisticated machinery todays aircraft are extraordinary marvels achieving speeds and load factors never before imagined. A second avenue of improvement has focused on the human being in the
27、 aviation system. By placing the human at the centre of the aviation enterprise, the Hawkins SHEL model reminded us that people must still handle even the best machinery. Crew Resource Management (CRM) expanded the Human Factors horizon from individuals to teams, while Reasons model of organizationa
28、l accidents went one step further to show how policies and activities at the management level can impact safety-related activities throughout an airline, including in the cockpit. This constant dedication to improving safety has led to the examination of cross-cultural factors in aviation safety. Th
29、e prevailing approach to the way activities in global aviation are conducted has been shaped in large part by manufacturers of technology and the largest customers. The standards and practices of the industry have been shaped through competitive deregulation, professional interest groups, and resour
30、ce-rich investment in technology. The outcome of this influence and investment is an outstanding safety record that civil aviation now enjoys. However, despite this overall success, some regions of the world do not enjoy the same high safety record as others, prompting the question “why?” Internatio
31、nal standards and practices should be equally relevant, equally applied, equally enforced and equally affordable around the world. However, the ICAO Universal Safety Oversight Audit Programme has demonstrated that this is not the case. Regional accident rates vary around the globe, suggesting that t
32、he prevailing model of aviation practice may not be equally applicable around the world. Understanding these variable safety statistics more completely was the impetus for this document, since the broadest understanding of those local or contextual factors affecting specific contexts may be the key
33、to further progress in global aviation. This digest therefore attempts to present the safety case for the consideration of cross-cultural factors in aviation. It does so by focusing not on cultures as such but on cultural interfaces, i.e. those situations where members of one culture encounter peopl
34、e or artefacts from other cultures. To put it in the simplest terms, as long as we stay within the bounds of our own culture, all of the advantages of cultural membership hold: Fellow members and the environment are predictable, thereby making daily routines easier and quicker. But as soon as we enc
35、ounter members or artefacts (aircraft, procedures, regulations) from other cultures, these cultural efficiencies are challenged and the opposite occurs: The environment becomes less predictable, more uncertain, and requires more cognitive effort. In time and with sufficient exposure, new habits will
36、 emerge to deal with the cultural interface. In civil aviation today, cross-cultural contact is the norm rather than the exception. In such a global context, cultural interfaces are a daily reality. To illustrate the safety case involving cultural interfaces, the digest builds upon three established
37、 industry conceptual models. First, the SHEL model introduces the notion of interfaces and notes their relevance for aviation Human Factors. Second, Reasons model of organizational accidents broadens the Human Factors horizon to include organizational factors that are distant but influential upon th
38、e cockpit. The safety case Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization Provided by IHS under license with ICAONot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS-,-,-ICAO Circular 302-AN/175 3involving cultural interfaces in aviation seeks to broaden the horizon ev
39、en further, showing how members of one culture can incur confusion, misunderstanding and misapplication when encountering members or artefacts of another culture. In this sense, cultural interfaces hold the potential to become latent conditions. Lastly, the Threat and Error Management (TEM) model pr
40、ovides a framework for “seeing” the cultural interface in the operating context. It can determine which types of cultural interfaces are the most problematic for a specific context; it can also study the threat management strategies employed by aviation personnel to manage these interfaces within sp
41、ecific contexts. Successful solutions can be shared with the industry. Copyright International Civil Aviation Organization Provided by IHS under license with ICAONot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS-,-,-4 Chapter 1 CULTURE, CONTEXT AND CULTURAL INTERFACES IN
42、 AVIATION INTRODUCTION 1.1 In a broad sense, culture can be defined as the ongoing interaction of a group of people with their environment. The environment shapes the responses of the people, and these responses in turn modify the environment. A culture develops and changes due to three processes: t
43、echnological and physical changes in the environment; changes in the internal dynamics of the social system; and historical circumstances that are fortuitous or serendipitous (see Figure 1-1). Figure 1-1. How a culture develops and changes 1.2 A simple but significant example of technological change
44、 affecting a culture is the invention of the mechanical clock. The first town clock was installed in a town in France in 1314; many public clocks appeared throughout Europe shortly thereafter. Prior to this invention, the concept of time was simple, general and loose. With the widespread use of the
45、mechanical clock, time began to be conceptualized as a succession of measurable units. The “working day” was invented and announced by the bells of the town clock. Similarly, the invention of the aeroplane has been no less profound; it has changed the way people conceptualize the world and their “ne
46、ighbours”. CultureHistoricaleventsTechnological andphysicalchanges in theenvironmentInternal dynamicsof the society and its poepleCopyright International Civil Aviation Organization Provided by IHS under license with ICAONot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS-
47、,-,-ICAO Circular 302-AN/175 5Culture A shared system of beliefs (what is true), values (what is important), expectations, and behaviour meanings (what is implied by engaging in a given action) developed by a group over time in order to meet the requirements of living and operating in a particular (
48、geographical) niche. It is what one expects of oneself and what one expects of others in the groups in which one lives and works. It is the man-made part of the environment (i.e. machines, buildings, technology). It is the way we do things around here and how we talk about the way we do things aroun
49、d here (i.e. customs, procedures). 1.3 The longer a group stays together, works together, or shares common goals together, the more its members will discover and share acceptable solutions to common problems with each other. The more the members share solutions, the more they will start to think and act alike. This ongoing adaptation is the basis of culture. This logic holds whether it is a national culture, an organizational cultur
