1、 Rec. ITU-R RA.1630-0 1 RECOMMENDATION ITU-R RA.1630-0*, * Technical and operational characteristics of ground-based astronomy systems for use in sharing studies with active services between 10 THz and 1 000 THz* (2003) The ITU Radiocommunication Assembly, considering a) that the spectral range betw
2、een 400 THz and 750 THz has been utilized for astronomical observations for centuries and, just in the last 30 years, technical advances have made it possible to fully explore the entire spectral range between 10 THz and 1 000 THz; b) that observations between 10 THz and 1 000 THz provide data criti
3、cal to answering certain fundamental questions of astronomy that cannot be answered by astronomical observations carried out below 275 GHz alone; c) that the spectrum between 10 THz and 1 000 THz is also used for astronomical research as well as many other applications; d) that the technology for as
4、tronomical observations in the spectrum between 10 THz and 1 000 THz is continuously evolving; e) that ground-based astronomical observations in the visible range, between 400 THz and 750 THz, are also conducted routinely by amateur astronomers; f) that frequencies between 10 THz and 1 000 THz are n
5、ow being used for data links, range measuring devices, and other active systems on ground-based and space-borne platforms, and as these systems are rapidly expanding and increasing in number, the likelihood of interference between active and passive systems is likely to increase; g) that many applic
6、ations of active and passive systems operating between 10 THz and 1 000 THz are very similar to those being used at lower frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum; h) that while there are significant differences between the technologies used in this part of the spectrum compared with lower freque
7、ncies (e.g. counting photons vs. integrating power over time), there are also many similarities (e.g. both are used for continuum and spectral line observations); j) that it is timely to consider the nature of protective measures and sharing considerations to ensure that ground-based astronomical te
8、lescopes can continue to operate without interference, * This Recommendation should be brought to the attention of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) and the International Union of Radio Science (URSI). * Radiocommunication Study Group 7 made editorial amendments to this Recommendation in th
9、e year 2017 in accordance with Resolution ITU-R 1. * 1 THz 1 000 GHz. 2 Rec. ITU-R RA.1630-0 recognizing a) that use and sharing of the spectrum between 10 THz and 1 000 THz has not been studied within the ITU-R, recommends 1 that astronomers take into account the possibility of interference from tr
10、ansmitters operating between 10 THz and 1 000 THz in their choices of observatory sites and in the design of instrumentation; 2 that astronomers provide the appropriate Radiocommunication Study Groups with information on the latest technological advances to ground-based astronomical observations in
11、the frequencies between 10 THz and 1 000 THz; 3 that studies of interference into astronomy systems operating at frequencies between 10 THz and 1 000 THz take into account the technical and operational parameters discussed in Annexes 1 and 2. Annex 1 1 Introduction A large variety of objects in the
12、Universe can be observed by ground-based telescopes at frequencies below 275 GHz as well as in the spectrum between 10 THz and 1 000 THz (30 m to 0.3 m). Measurements in different frequency domains usually provide information on the physical properties (like temperature, density and spatial distribu
13、tion) of various states of the different components (like stars, gas and dust) that constitute the observed objects, as well as on local magnetic fields. In general, the larger the frequency range covered by the observations, the more detailed the information that can be derived about the local phys
14、ical conditions. On the other hand, certain types of cosmic objects can exclusively, or more readily, be studied at frequencies below 275 GHz or in the spectrum between 10 and 1 000 THz (30 m to 0.3 m). The astronomical community has been observing in the band between frequencies of about 400 THz an
15、d 750 THz (0.75 m and 0.4 m) with telescopes for about 400 years. In the last 30 years, the advent of detector technologies has widened the bands available for astronomical research to the spectrum from 10 THz to 1 000 THz (30 m to 0.3 m). Astronomers generally refer to frequencies between 10 THz an
16、d 300 THz (30 m and 1 m) as “infrared”, while the spectrum between 300 THz and 1 000 THz (1 m and 0.3 m) is generally referred to as “optical“. The spectral range between 10 THz and 1 000 THz is optimal for studies of cosmic thermal emissions and for a large number of spectral lines from atoms and m
17、olecules. During the last 30 years, astronomers have seen technological advances that allow the sensing of certain signals once possible only from orbiting platforms. Amateur astronomers conduct observations in the spectrum between 400 THz and 750 THz (0.75 m and 0.4 m). Individual countries and int
18、ernational consortia are now investing heavily in building observatories with very large mirrors (antennas) of up to 10 m diameter or even larger, which in conjunction with modern detectors, will achieve unprecedented sensitivities. In the same manner, the advent of Rec. ITU-R RA.1630-0 3 cheap, rel
19、iable lasers has led to a revolution in active applications. These include broadband, high-capacity space-to-space, Earth-to-space, space-to-Earth, and terrestrial data and communication links, radar and other range measuring devices. Astronomical instrumentation operating in the spectrum between 10
20、 THz to 1 000 THz (30 m to 0.3 m) is highly vulnerable to interference or even burnout of detectors by strong signals. However, the high directivities of active systems such as telecommunication systems utilizing lasers operating at frequencies between 20 THz and 375 THz (15 m and 0.8 m), together w
21、ith the propagation properties of waves in this frequency range give rise to possibilities for hitherto unknown manifestations of interference, but also a wide range of options for interference avoidance and band sharing. Studies of interference avoidance and band sharing in this frequency range wil
22、l require knowledge of the technical and operational characteristics of astronomical receivers and telescope systems. 2 Bands of interest Due to atmospheric constraints, the majority of the ground-based astronomical observations above the current 1 THz upper limit of provision No. 5.565 of the Radio
23、 Regulations occurs in approximately the 100 THz to 1 000 THz spectral range. Figure 1 illustrates the frequency dependence of the transmittance of the atmosphere along three zenith paths. The area shaded in light grey represents a high-quality site with dry air located at 5 km above sea level. The
24、darker grey area shows the additional atmospheric absorption that would occur for a site located 2 km above sea-level (e.g. Kitt Peak). The black regions show the further impact of the atmosphere for a site located at sea-level. All paths utilize the temperature and pressure profiles of Recommendati
25、on ITU-R P.835. Absorption below 1 THz is calculated using Recommendation ITU-R P.676. The figure clearly shows that the atmosphere, except at some chosen, high-altitude astronomical sites, is opaque to electromagnetic energy at almost all frequencies between about 1 THz and 10 THz. Above 10 THz, th
26、e transparency of the atmosphere becomes favourable to observations of cosmic energy from the surface of the Earth. Above about 1 000 THz the atmosphere again becomes opaque. The transmittance of the spectral region between 10 THz and 1 000 THz is shown in detail in Fig. 2 for the same three zenith
27、paths. It is characterized by a series of windows of visibility separated by narrow but strong regions of absorption. The individual windows of visibility are limited in their transparency by a fine structure of many weak absorption lines. Individual absorption lines occur due to the presence of gas
28、eous components in the atmosphere including, but not limited to: NH3, CO2, CO, CH4, NO2, NO, O2, O3, SO2, H2O, and various chlorofluorocarbons. Several of these gases, which are significant to astronomical observations between 10 THz and 1 000 THz, are not currently considered in existing ITU-R prop
29、agation Recommendations. The strength of the absorption lines is generally dependent on temperature and pressure. As the strength and width of these lines is variable, bands of interest to ground-based optical astronomers include all spectrum between about 10 THz and 1 000 THz. 4 Rec. ITU-R RA.1630-
30、0 Access to more spectrum is available through the use of airborne observatories, such as balloons and aircraft, dedicated to astronomical observations. In order to have broader access to this astronomically important range, space-borne observatories such as the Hubble Space Telescope are used. 3 Ty
31、pes of observations Some of the observations made in the spectral range between 10 THz and 1 000 THz frequency range are similar to those made in bands currently allocated to the radio astronomy service, namely measurements of continuum spectral power flux-density (spfd), spectral line properties (l
32、ine spfd, Doppler shift and shape). One of the notable differences between astronomical observations made at frequencies below 275 GHz and in the frequency range between 10 THz and 1 000 THz is the much greater ease with which direct imaging may be carried out in the latter range, both in continuum
33、and spectral line modes. The availability and sensitivity of detector arrays with several million pixels each, and photographic cameras, make this a widely used technique. Also, generally much wider bandwidths are used. 1 6 3 0 - 0 11 10 10 0 1 00 0510152025303540455030 0 00 3 00 0 30 0 30 3F I G U
34、R E 1A b s or p t i on ( s h ad e d ar e a) o f a s t an d a r d at m o s p h e r e a l o n g a ve r t i c a l p at h60 G H za b s or pt i onr e gi on27 5 G H ze n d of r a di oa l l oc a t i on s0. 01 0. 1Absorption(dB)F r e qu e nc y ( T H z )0. 3W a ve l e ngt h ( m)Rec. ITU-R RA.1630-0 5 Astrono
35、my data in the frequency range between 10 THz and 1 000 THz is collected using several measurement techniques. Each technique provides unique information about the object(s) being measured. Typical values used of parameters such as bandwidth, receiver sensitivity, observed field size and angular res
36、olution are, in practice, dependent on the type of measurement performed. Integration times commonly used vary widely, ranging from as short as 0.001 s to many hours, depending upon the stability of the atmosphere, the type of detector used and the characteristics and intensity of the emission being
37、 observed. Multiple individual measurements made using short integration times are often recorded digitally, and then integrated later to produce the sensitivity benefits of a long integration time. 3.1 Photometry Photometry is the high-frequency analogue of continuum observations made in the radio
38、astronomy bands below 275 GHz of the spfd of cosmic sources. Measurements of the spfd in the frequency range between 10 THz and 1 000 THz generally consider all types of galaxies, stars, objects in the solar system and dust between, or around stars in a large variety of objects found throughout the
39、Universe. 1 6 3 0 - 0 210 0 1 00 0510152025303540455030 10 3 110F I G U R E 2A b s or p t i on ( s h ad e d ar e a) a b ove 1 0 T H z o f a s t an d ar d at m os p h e r e al on g a ve r t i c al p a t hAbsorption(dB)F r e qu e nc y ( T H z )0. 3W a ve l e ngt h ( m)6 Rec. ITU-R RA.1630-0 Photometry
40、 is a technique used throughout the entire frequency range under consideration, using standard frequency bands defined by filters put in the light path of the detectors. A list of commonly used broadband filter bands in the frequency range between 10 THz and 1 000 THz is provided in Table 3. Example
41、s of the different types of detectors used in different frequency ranges are provided in Table 2. These detectors include: bolometers and various photoconductive or photovoltaic detectors for the N and Q bands, InSb detectors for the J, H, K, L, and M bands and charge coupled device (CCDs) for the U
42、, B, V, R and I bands. Narrow-band filters centred on spectral lines of particular interest are used as well. Photometric observations are generally calibrated by comparison to well-characterized stars. 3.2 Spectroscopy Spectroscopy is the high-frequency analogue of the measurement of spectral lines
43、 in the radio astronomy bands below 275 GHz. The wealth of spectral lines throughout the frequency range between 10 THz and 1 000 THz, the vast majority of which are from various states of elements and molecules which do not have lines at frequencies below 275 GHz, makes this an important branch of
44、astronomy, and underlines the importance of having access to this frequency range. Spectral line observations are made to derive, e.g. the composition, chemistry, physical properties and dynamics of a large variety of objects, such as interstellar clouds, individual galaxies, groups and clusters of
45、galaxies, as well as the global expansion of the Universe and its local deviations, the composition and origins of stars, and cosmic magnetic fields. The most widely used dispersive device for spectroscopy in the frequency range between 10 THz and 1 000 THz is the diffraction grating. A diffraction
46、grating disperses incoming energy by its frequency. The dispersed energy is generally recorded by an electronic detector, such as a CCD array, to create a spectrogram. At the lower end of this frequency range, analogue and, increasingly, digital spectrometers are used. However, such devices are not
47、yet generally available, except in the case of heterodyne receivers that convert the received signals to a lower frequency. The astronomical spectrum is then examined for the presence of lines that are characteristic of particular elements. If found, that element is known to be present in the cosmic
48、 body or, in some cases, in the space between the cosmic body and the receiving telescope. Spectroscopy also makes a major contribution to the study of the motions and dynamics of astronomical objects. By measuring the Doppler shift of the lines from stars and interstellar gas in, e.g. galaxies, rad
49、ial motions along the line-of-sight can be determined for, among other things, studies of their velocities in space and of the internal dynamics of extended objects, like galaxies and interstellar gas clouds. Spectroscopy can be performed at several levels of spectral resolution. The crudest resolution amounts to a form of photometry obtained using a spectrograph, where the spectrum is divided into a small number of frequency bands only to give an indication of the overall spectral energy distribution. With mid/high-resolution spectroscopy, the individual lines an
