1、 Rec. ITU-R RA.769-2 1 RECOMMENDATION ITU-R RA.769-2 Protection criteria used for radio astronomical measurements (Question ITU-R 145/7) (1992-1995-2003) The ITU Radiocommunication Assembly, considering a) that many of the most fundamental astronomical advances made in the past five decades, (e.g. t
2、he discovery of radio galaxies, quasars, and pulsars, the direct measurement of neutral hydrogen, the direct measurement of distances of certain external galaxies, and establishment of a positional reference frame accurate to 20 arc s) have been made through radio astronomy, and that radio astronomi
3、cal observations are expected to continue making fundamental contributions to our understanding of the Universe, and that they provide the only way to investigate some cosmic phenomena; b) that the development of radio astronomy has also led to major technological advances, particularly in receiving
4、 and imaging techniques, and to improved knowledge of fundamental radio-noise limitations of great importance to radiocommunication, and promises further important results; c) that radio astronomers have made useful astronomical observations from the Earths surface in all available atmospheric windo
5、ws ranging from 2 MHz to 1 000 GHz and above; d) that the technique of space radio astronomy, which involves the use of radio telescopes on space platforms, provides access to the entire radio spectrum above about 10 kHz, including parts of the spectrum not accessible from the Earth due to absorptio
6、n in atmosphere; e) that protection from interference is essential to the advancement of radio astronomy and associated measurements; f) that radio astronomical observations are mostly performed with high-gain antennas or arrays, to provide the highest possible angular resolution, and consequently m
7、ain beam interference does not need to be considered in most situations, except when there is the possibility of receiver damage; g) that most interference that leads to the degradation of astronomical data is received through the far side lobes of the telescope; h) that the sensitivity of radio ast
8、ronomical receiving equipment, which is still steadily improving, particularly at millimetre wavelengths, and that it greatly exceeds the sensitivity of communications and radar equipment; j) that typical radio astronomical observations require integration times of the order of a few minutes to hour
9、s, but that sensitive observations, particularly of spectral lines, may require longer periods of recording, sometimes up to several days; 2 Rec. ITU-R RA.769-2 k) that some transmissions from spacecraft can introduce problems of interference to radio astronomy and that these cannot be avoided by ch
10、oice of site for an observatory or by local protection; l) that interference to radio astronomy can be caused by terrestrial transmissions reflected by the Moon, by aircraft, and possibly by artificial satellites; m) that some types of high spatial-resolution interferometric observations require sim
11、ultaneous reception, at the same radio frequency, by widely separated receiving systems that may be located in different countries, on different continents, or on space platforms; n) that propagation conditions at frequencies below about 40 MHz are such that a transmitter operating anywhere on the E
12、arth might cause interference detrimental to radio astronomy; o) that some degree of protection can be achieved by appropriate frequency assignments on a national rather than an international basis; p) that WRCs have made improved allocations for radio astronomy, particularly above 71 GHz, but that
13、protection in many bands, particularly those shared with other radio services, may still need careful planning; q) that technical criteria concerning interference detrimental to the radio astronomy service (RAS) have been developed, which are set out in Tables 1, 2, and 3, recommends 1 that radio as
14、tronomers should be encouraged to choose sites as free as possible from interference; 2 that administrations should afford all practicable protection to the frequencies and sites used by radio astronomers in their own and neighbouring countries and when planning global systems, taking due account of
15、 the levels of interference given in Annex 1; 3 that administrations, in seeking to afford protection to particular radio astronomical observations, should take all practical steps to reduce all unwanted emissions falling within the band of the frequencies to be protected for radio astronomy to the
16、absolute minimum. Particularly those emissions from aircraft, high altitude platform stations, spacecraft and balloons; 4 that when proposing frequency allocations, administrations take into account that it is very difficult for the RAS to share frequencies with any other service in which direct lin
17、e-of-sight paths from the transmitters to the observatories are involved. Above about 40 MHz sharing may be practicable with services in which the transmitters are not in direct line-of-sight of the observatories, but coordination may be necessary, particularly if the transmitters are of high power.
18、 Rec. ITU-R RA.769-2 3 Annex 1 Sensitivity of radio astronomy systems 1 General considerations and assumptions used in the calculation of interference levels 1.1 Detrimental-level interference criterion The sensitivity of an observation in radio astronomy can be defined in terms of the smallest powe
19、r level change P in the power level P at the radiometer input that can be detected and measured. The sensitivity equation is: tfPP01=(1) where: P and P: power spectral density of the noise f0: bandwidth t: integration time. P and P in equation (1) can be expressed in temperature units through the Bo
20、ltzmanns constant, k: TkPTkP = also; (2) Thus we may express the sensitivity equation as: tfT0= (3) where: T = TA+ TR This result applies for one polarization of the radio telescope. T is the sum of TA(the antenna noise temperature contribution from the cosmic background, the Earths atmosphere and r
21、adiation from the Earth) and TR, the receiver noise temperature. Equations (1) or (3) can be used to estimate the sensitivities and interference levels for radio astronomical observations. The results are listed in Tables 1 and 2. An observing (or integration) time, t, of 2 000 s is assumed, and int
22、erference threshold levels, PH, given in Tables 1 and 2 are expressed as the interference power within the bandwidth f that introduces an error of 10% in the measurement of P (or T), i.e.: fPPH= 0.1 (4) In summary, the appropriate columns in Tables 1 and 2 may be calculated using the following metho
23、ds: T, using equation (3), P, using equation (2), PH, using equation (4). 4 Rec. ITU-R RA.769-2 The interference can also be expressed in terms of the pfd incident at the antenna, either in the total bandwidth or as a spectral pfd, SH, per 1 Hz of bandwidth. The values given are for an antenna havin
24、g a gain, in the direction of arrival of the interference, equal to that of an isotropic antenna (which has an effective area of c2/4 f 2, where c is the speed of the light and f the frequency). The gain of an isotropic radiator, 0 dBi, is used as a general representative value for the side-lobe lev
25、el, as discussed under 1.3. Values of SHf (dB(W/m2), are derived from PHby adding: 20 log f 158.5 dB (5) where f (Hz). SHis then derived by subtracting 10 log f (Hz) to allow for the bandwidth. 1.2 Integration time The calculated sensitivities and interference levels presented in Tables 1 and 2 are
26、based on assumed integration times of 2 000 s. Integration times actually used in astronomical observations cover a wide range of values. Continuum observations made with single-antenna telescopes (as distinct from interferometric arrays) are well represented by the integration time of 2 000 s, typi
27、cal of good quality observations. On the other hand 2 000 s is less representative of spectral line observations. Improvements in receiver stability and the increased use of correlation spectrometers have allowed more frequent use of longer integration times required to observe weak spectral lines,
28、and spectral line observations lasting several hours are quite common. A more representative integration time for these observations would be 10 h. For a 10 h integration, the threshold interference level is 6 dB more stringent than the values given in Table 2. There are also certain observations of
29、 time varying phenomena, e.g. observations of pulsars, stellar or solar bursts, and interplanetary scintillations for which much shorter time periods may be adequate. 1.3 Antenna response pattern Interference to radio astronomy is almost always received through the antenna side lobes, so the main be
30、am response to interference need not be considered. The side-lobe model for large paraboloid antennas in the frequency range 2 to 30 GHz, given in Recommendation ITU-R SA.509 is a good approximation of the response of many radio astronomy antennas and is adopted throughout this Recommendation as the
31、 radio astronomy reference antenna. In this model, the side-lobe level decreases with angular distance (degrees) from the main beam axis and is equal to 32 25 log (dBi) for 1 48. The effect of an interfering signal clearly depends upon the angle of incidence relative to the main beam axis of the ant
32、enna, since the side-lobe gain, as represented by the model, varies from 32 to 10 dBi as a function of this angle. However, it is useful to calculate the threshold levels of interference strength for a particular value of side-lobe gain, that we choose as 0 dBi, and use in Tables 1 to 3. From the mo
33、del, this side-lobe level occurs at an angle of 19.05 from the main beam axis. Then a signal at the detrimental threshold level defined for 0 dBi side-lobe gain will exceed the criterion for the detrimental level at the receiver input if it is incident at the antenna at an angle of less than 19.05.
34、The solid angle Rec. ITU-R RA.769-2 5 within a cone of angular radius 19.05 is 0.344 sr, which is equal to 5.5% of the 2 sr of the sky above the horizon that a radio telescope is able to observe at any given time. Thus if the probability of the angle of incidence of interference is uniformly distrib
35、uted over the sky, about 5.5% of interfering signals would be incident within 19.05 of the main beam axis of an antenna pointed towards the sky. Note also that the 5.5% figure is in line with the recommended levels of data loss to radio astronomy observations in percentage of time, specified in Reco
36、mmen-dation ITU-R RA.1513. The particular case of non-GSO satellites presents a dynamic situation, that is, the positions of the satellites relative to the beam of the radio astronomy antenna show large changes within the time scale of the 2 000 s integration time. Analysis of interference in this c
37、ase requires integrating the response over the varying side-lobe levels, for example, using the concept of epfd defined in No. 22.5C of the Radio Regulations (RR). In addition it is usually necessary to combine the responses to a number of satellites within a particular system. In such calculations
38、it is suggested that the antenna response pattern for antennas of diameter greater than 100 in Recommendation ITU-R S.1428 be used to represent the radio astronomy antenna, until a model based specifically on radio astronomy antennas is available; see 2.2 for further discussion. 1.4 Bandwidth Equati
39、on (1) shows that observations of the highest sensitivity are obtained when radio astronomers make use of the widest possible bandwidth. Consequently, in Table 1 (continuum observations), f is assumed to be the width of the allocated radio astronomy bands for frequencies up to 71 GHz. Above 71 GHz a
40、 value of 8 GHz is used, which is a representative bandwidth generally used on radio astronomy receivers in this range. In Table 2 (spectral line observations) a channel bandwidth f equal to the Doppler shift corresponding to 3 km/s in velocity is used for entries below 71 GHz. This value represents
41、 a compromise between the desired high spectral resolution and the sensitivity. There are a very large number of astrophysically important lines above 71 GHz, as shown in Recommendation ITU-R RA.314 and only a few representative values for the detrimental levels are given in Table 2 for the range 71
42、-275 GHz. The channel bandwidth used to compute the detrimental levels above 71 GHz is 1 000 kHz (1 MHz) in all cases. This value was chosen for practical reasons. While it is slightly wider than the spectral channel width customary in radio astronomy receivers at these frequencies, it is used as th
43、e standard reference bandwidth for space services above 15 GHz. 1.5 Receiver noise temperature and antenna temperature The receiver noise temperatures in Tables 1 and 2 are representative of the systems in use in radio astronomy. For frequencies above 1 GHz these are cryogenically cooled amplifiers
44、or mixers. The quantum effect places a theoretical lower limit of hf/k on the noise temperature of such devices, where h and k are Plancks and Boltzmanns constants, respectively. This limit becomes important at frequencies above 100 GHz, where it equals 4.8 K. Practical mixers and amplifiers for ban
45、ds at 100 GHz and higher provide noise temperatures greater than hf/k by a factor of about four. Thus, for frequencies above 100 GHz, noise temperatures equal to 4hf/k are used in Tables 1 and 2. 6 Rec. ITU-R RA.769-2 The antenna temperatures in the Tables are also representative of practical system
46、s in use in radio astronomy. They include the effects of the ionosphere or the neutral atmosphere, ground pickup in side lobes resulting from spillover or scattering, ohmic losses, and the cosmic microwave background. At frequencies above 100 GHz the atmospheric losses due to water vapour in the neu
47、tral atmosphere become very important. For these frequencies the values given are typical of the terrestrial sites used for major millimetric-wave radio astronomy facilities, such as Mauna Kea, Hawaii, or the Llano de Chajnantor at an elevation of 5 000 m in Chile, which is the site chosen for a maj
48、or international radio astronomy array for frequencies in the range 30 GHz to 1 THz. 2 Special cases The levels given in Tables 1 and 2 are applicable to terrestrial sources of interfering signals. The detrimental pfd and spectral pfd shown in Tables 1 and 2 assume that interference is received thro
49、ugh a 0 dBi side lobe, and should be regarded as the general interference criteria for high sensitivity radio astronomy observations, when the interference does not enter the near side lobes. 2.1 Interference from GSO satellites Interference from GSO satellites is a case of particular importance. Because the power levels in Tables 1 and 2 were calculated based on a 0 dBi antenna gain, interference detrimental to radio astronomy will be encountered when a reference antenna, such as described in Recommen-dation ITU-R SA.509, is
