1、Edited by Jeffrey A. Pike PROGRESS IN TECHNOLOGY SERIES Head Injury Biomechanics Volume 1 The Skull i Head Injury Biomechanics Volume I The Skullii Other SAE books of interest: Neck Injury Biomechanics Edited by Jeffrey A. Pike (Product Code: PT-141) Forensic Biomechanics: Using Medical Records to S
2、tudy Injury Mechanisms Jeffrey A. Pike (Product Code: R-379) Vehicle Accident Analysis and Reconstruction Methods, Second Edition Raymond A. Brach and Matthew Brach (Product Code: R-397)For more information or to order a book, contact SAE International: 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0
3、001 phone: 877-606-7323 (U.S. and Canada) or 724-776-4970 (outside U.S. and Canada) fax: 724-776-0790; email: CustomerServicesae.org; website: http:/books.sae.orgiii Jeffrey A. Pike Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA Head Injury Biomechanics Volume I The Skull Copyright 2011 SAE International eISBN: 978-
4、0-7680-6442-1iv 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA Email CustomerServicesae.org Phone: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada)724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-0790 Copyright 2011 SAE International. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
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6、0-6035-5 Library of Congress Catalog Number 2011930695 SAE Order Number PT-152/1 DOI 10.4271/PT-152/1 Information contained in this work has been obtained by SAE International from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither SAE International nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completen
7、ess of any information published herein and neither SAE International nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that SAE International and its authors are supplying information, but
8、 are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. To purchase bulk quantities, please contact: SAE Customer Service Email: CustomerServicesae.org Phone: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and
9、 Canada)724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-0790 Visit the SAE International Bookstore at http:/books.sae.orgv Dedication To Debbie and the “kids, ” Stacy, Adam, Blair, and Emily, and to the memory of my parents and sister, Herbert, May, and Anne Pike, and to the memory of Professor Voigt Hodgso
10、n.vivii Table of Contents Preface ix Acknowledgments xi Blunt Head Trauma 1 List of Papers Volume I (The Skull) Cormier J., Manoogian S., Bisplinghoff J., Biomechanical Response of the Human Face and Corresponding Biofidelity of the FOCUS Headform, SAE Paper 2010-01-1317, SAE International, 2010. 19
11、 Craig M.J., Viano D.C., Bir C.A., Jaw Loading Response of Current ATDs, SAE Paper 2009-01-0388, SAE International, 2009. 37 Duma S., Jernigan M., Herring I., Eye Injury and Orbital Fracture Patterns in Frontal Automobile Crashes, SAE Paper 2003-01-0511, SAE International, 2003. 51 Greenberg S.W., G
12、onzalez D., Gurdjian E.S., Thomas L.M., Changes in Physical Properties of Bone Between the In Vivo, Freshly Dead, and Embalmed Conditions, Paper 680783, Proc. 12 Stapp Car Crash Conf., 1968. 61 Hopper R.H., McElhaney J.H., Myers B.S., Mandibular and Basilar Skull Fracture Tolerance, SAE Paper 942213
13、, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1994. 71 Huelke DF, Smock WS, Fuller PM, Nichols GR, Basilar Skull Fractures Produced by Facial Impacts - Case Histories and a Review of the Literature, SAE Paper 881711, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1988. 81 Melvin J.W., Little W.C., Smrcka J., Zhu Y., Salloum
14、 M.J., A Biomechanical Face for the Hybrid III Dummy, SAE Paper 952715, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1995. 91 Rouhana S.W., Webb S.R., Dunn V.C., Investigation into the Noise Associated with Airbag Deployment: Part II - Injury Risk Study Using a Mathematical Model of the Human Ear, Paper 983162,
15、 Proc. 42 Stapp Car Crash Conf., 1998. 105 Schneider D.C., Nahum A.M., Impact Studies of Facial Bones and Skull, Paper 720965, Proc. Stapp Car Crash Conf., 1972. 127 Scullion P ., Nix L., Morgan R.M., Nagabhushana V., Digges K.H., Cing-Dao Kan, Injury Mechanism of the Head and Face of Children in Si
16、de Impacts, Paper 2009-01-1434, SAE International, 2009. 145viii Strachan D.S., The Anatomy and Physiology of the Head and Neck. In: Huelke DF, Strachan DS, Grabb WC, Evans FG, States JD, Burdi AR, Frey CF, Votaw CL, Patrick LM, Mertz HJ, Human Anatomy, Impact Injuries, and Human Tolerances, Paper 7
17、00195, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1970. 155 Wonnacott M., Withnall C., Development of an Articulating Mandible Headform Having Force Sensing Temporomandibular Joints, Paper 2010-01-0136, SAE International, 2010. 167 Ziejewski M., Karami G., Orrison W.W., Hanson E.H., Dynamic Response of Head U
18、nder Vehicle Crash Loading, Paper 09-0432, Proceedings of the 21st International Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV), NHTSA, Washington DC, 2009. 177 References 187 References by Topic 201 About the Editor 203ix Preface An earlier SAE International compendium (Biomechanics of Impact
19、Injury and Injury Tolerances of the Head-Neck Complex, PT-43, edited by Stanley H. Backaitis) provided a collection of papers from the early 1960s through 1991 and so this compendium focuses on the early 1990s up to the present (2011). This collection also includes several of the earlier papers to h
20、elp put current research into a historical perspective. The “Blunt Head Trauma” chapter ties together anatomy, injury mechanisms, and a number of related topics regarding current research as well as introduces some of the concepts likely to be utilized in the future. It takes an interdisciplinary ap
21、proach and draws upon transportation, sports, falls, and military applications of the basic principles. This compendium is divided into three volumes: The Skull (Volume I); The Brain (Volume II); and Mitigation (Volume III). Volume I contains publications primarily related to head impact and the res
22、ulting injury to the “outside” of the head, namely the skin, bones of the skull, and sensory organs. Volume II includes publications relating to injury of the heads contents, primarily the brain, its surrounding membranes, and its blood supply. The causes of the injuries include head impact with an
23、external environment (e.g., vehicle interior) and abrupt head movement without head impact. Volume III applies protective strategies to various injury scenarios (e.g., passenger vehicles, football players, blast injuries) or to a particular demographic group (e.g., children, seniors). Each volume in
24、cludes: 1) reprints of approximately a dozen previously-published technical papers, plus an SAE paper providing a detailed discussion of the anatomy of the head; 2) a table of more than 250 references arranged by topic, (e.g., transportation mode or sport); and 3) a new chapter that ties together va
25、rious aspects of anatomy, injury, and injury mechanisms. The resultant insight regarding head injury should be applicable to a broad range of applications, including transportation, falls, sports, and blast-related injury and the reprinted papers, in conjunction with the bibliography and chapter, sh
26、ould offer useful insights, not only with regard to the past and present, but as this ever-changing field continues to evolve, regarding future applications as well.xxi Acknowledgments First and foremost, it is my pleasure to acknowledge the role of the Advisory Panel. Once again, I have been very f
27、ortunate to have been assisted by a truly outstanding panel how can you go wrong with a group that includes several PhDs, two physician engineers, two neurosurgeons, and a knight? Their help with paper selection and material review was invaluable. Each member of the panel is truly a world-renowned a
28、uthority and I thank each of them for their willingness to participate and for sharing their time and expertise. The Advisory Panel members all have “day jobs” in which capacity they help save lives and reduce injuries. Ultimately, injury biomechanics is not about papers and books, but about reducin
29、g morbidity and mortality from biomechanical trauma. I hope this volume will help others to continue these efforts. ADVISORY PANEL John M. Cavanaugh Dept. of Biomedical Engineering Wayne State University USA Carlton Russ Greer Greer Neurosurgery Clinic Monroe, Louisiana USA Murray Mackay Prof. Emeri
30、tus of Transport Safety University of Birmingham UK Robert S. Salzar Principal Scientist Center for Applied Biomechanics University of Virginia USA Erik G. Takhounts Human Injury Research Division National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Washington, DC USA David C. Viano ProBiomechanics LLC Bl
31、oomfield Hills, MI USA Alex Valadka Chief, Adult Neurosciences Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM); National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). Many of the authors graciously provided review copies of their papers and were very generous with their time. Ultimate
32、ly, this volume was the result of a number of diverse selection criteria, and some very fine papers could not be included.xii The dedication page of this book includes head injury researcher, Prof. Voigt Hodgson. He somehow managed to balance directing a research laboratory, teaching and serving as
33、a role model and on a personal note, was a gracious host who always provided a generous supply of the worlds best donuts. Finally, this is my fifth volume for SAE International the first three as author and then two as editor. Perhaps the best acknowledgment that I can give to Martha Swiss and the c
34、rew at SAE is to mention that there may be a sixth (call it a “sixth sense”). Jeffrey A. Pike SAE Fellow and Series Editor Biomechanics Consulting, Inc. USA 1 Blunt Head Trauma Introduction This chapter provides an overview of head anatomy and discusses a variety of blunt head injuries, injury mecha
35、nisms, and mitigation applications. Although this chapter focuses on transportation- related injury, primarily of the brain and the bones of the skull, the interdisciplinary approach also draws upon sports, falls, and blast injuries. The chapter concludes with a brief look at some of the latest deve
36、lopments and possible future trends. The goal is to provide readers with a common background to better utilize the referenced publica- tions, to facilitate interdisciplinary cooperation, and ultimately to foster developments that will mitigate head injuries. Many of the references at the end of this
37、 chapter discuss how an injury is caused, i.e., transportation- related (Aircraft: 11, 87; Bicycle: 35, 42, 234; Car/Light Truck/Van: 17, 34, 40, 41, 110, 119, 123, 146, 155, 157, 159-163, 175, 181, 220, 246, 252, 256; Commercial Ve- hicle: 18, 43, 84, 191; Horseback: 80; Motorcycle: 78, 137, 197; P
38、edestrian: 60, 65, 109, 147, 173, 185, 195, 205, 212, 228 Race Cars: 136, 139, 140; Railroads: 33), sport-related (General: 52, 104, 132, 156, 196, 237; Baseball: 204; Boxing: 182, 230, 239; Football: 19, 158, 176, 236, 238; Soccer: 67), or blast-related (Blast: 56, 93, 120, 126, 151, 188, 192, 218,
39、 253) or the age of the injured person (Infants Seniors: 122, 124, 178-180, 226), and there are even a few studies of animals who routinely receive head impact without injury (Non-Injurious: 59, 68, 79). Many of the references focus on the injuries themselves, either involving the brain (1-7, 12, 13
40、, 20, 21, 28, 36, 38, 46-51, 53, 55, 57, 62, 64, 66, 69-74, 76, 81-83, 86, 88, 98, 99, 107, 108, 111, 112, 117, 121, 128, 129, 131, 134, 135, 142-145, 153, 164-166, 168, 170, 171, 183, 184, 187, 201, 203, 206, 210, 211, 213, 221, 223, 225, 227, 231, 233, 240, 241, 245, 247, 249, 251) or skin, bones
41、and sensory organs (15, 23, 25, 37, 39, 45, 54, 85, 91, 94, 96, 97, 102, 103, 116, 127, 138, 141, 154, 167, 169, 189, 193, 199, 200, 207, 208, 219, 235, 242-244). Several of the publications provide general anatomical and physiological information (Anatomy FEM (Finite Element Modeling) and Computer
42、Models: 8, 32, 63, 100, 101, 113, 194, 222, 229, 250, 254; Imaging: 89, 90, 118, 190, 214, 215, 232) and on methodologies for quantifying injury (Injury Scaling: 27, 75, 130). Anatomy and Function The head may be described as consisting of three components: the bony skull (cranial and facial bones);
43、 the skin and other soft tissue covering the skull; and the contents of the skull (most notably the brain, the brains protective membranes me- ninges and numerous blood vessels) (Figure 1). Figure 1. The scalp, skull, meninges, and brain. The scalp consists of five layers arranged as follows (going
44、from superficial to deep): skin; connective tissue (subcutaneous); aponeurosis epicranialis; loose connective tissue; and pericranium. (A useful pneumonic utilizes the fact that the first letter of the name of each layer spells “scalp” (Figure 2). The first scalp layer, the skin, typically has thick
45、ness on the order of one-quarter inch and is composed of two major sub-layers: a superficial epidermis and a deep dermis.2 The second layer, the subcutaneous connective tissue, is richly supplied with blood vessels and so lacerations extending to this level are likely to be associated with bleeding.
46、 Furthermore, the blood vessels are so firmly supported that they cannot retract if lacerated and thereby “seal” themselves, as would normally be the case. Therefore, hemor- rhage resulting from a cut that includes this layer may be greater than otherwise expected. The third layer, the “aponeurosis
47、epicranialis” or just “aponeurosis,” is a strong membraneous sheath that provides a helmet-shaped covering of the top of the head and, therefore, is also referred to as the “galea” (helmet). It has at least two important functions with regard to injury. First, it tends to act as a protective barrier
48、. Second, it limits the extent of lacerations of the first two layers. That is, the scalp muscles located in this layer are arranged so that they tend to pull at the margins (edges) of lacerations (especially those in a coronal plane), and could thereby tend to cause further separation of the edges and worsening of the wound. However, the membrane in this third la
