1、HANS PETER LENZ CHRISTIAN COZZARINIEmissions and Air QualityOther SAE books on this topic: Automobiles and Pollution by Paul Degobert (Order No. R-150) Emissions from Two-Stroke Engines by Marco Nuti (Order No. R-223) Reduced Emissions and Fuel Consumption in Automobile Engines by F. Schfer and R. v
2、an Basshuysen (Order No. R-157) For more information or to order this book, contact SAE at 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001; phone (724) 776-4970; fax (724) 776-0790; e-mail: publicationssae.org.Emissions and Air Quality Hans Peter Lenz Christian Cozzarini Society of Automotive Engi
3、neers, Inc. Warrendale, Pa. Copyright 1999 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. eISBN: 978-0-7680-4806-3Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Lenz, Hans Peter, Emissions and air quality / Hans Peter Lenz, Christian Cozzarini p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-
4、7680-0248-6 1. Motor vehicles-Motors-Exhaust gas-Environmental aspects. 2. Air quality. I. Cozzarini, Christian. II. Title. TD886.5.L46 1999 363.7387-dc21 99-14564 CIP Copyright 1999 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Phone: (724) 776-4841 F
5、ax: (724) 776-5760 E-mail: publicationssae.org http:/www.sae.org ISBN 0-7680-0248-6 All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Permission to photocopy for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific clients, is granted by SAE for libraries and other users
6、 registered with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), provided that the base fee of $.50 per page is paid directly to CCC, 222 Rosewood Dr., Danvers, MA 01923. Special requests should be addressed to the SAE Publications Group. 0-7680-0248-6/99-$.50. SAE Order No. R-237Preface The work presented he
7、re summarizes the results of a scientific study performed by Prof. Dr. H.P. Lenz and Dipl.-Ing. Christian Cozzarini from the Institut fr Verbrennungskraftmaschinen und Kraftfahrzeugbau at the Technische Universitt Wien. The comprehensive text of all relevant work is contained in the studies “Zur Bed
8、eutung der Stickoxide“ (“About the Importance of Nitrogen Oxides“) and “Emission, Immission, und Wirkung von Abgasbestandteilen“ (“Emissions, Air Quality, and Effects of Exhaust Gas Constituents“) published in 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, and 1997 40, 47, 60, 143145, which summarize the present state of
9、scientific knowledge based on more than 1,500 literature sources. Many thanks are extended to the following companies for providing the financial support that made this work possible: Adam Opel AG, Rsselsheim Daimler-Benz AG, Stuttgart MAN AG, Nrnberg Volkswagen AG, Wolfsburg BMW AG, Mnchen Ford-Wer
10、ke AG, Kln Dr.-Ing. h.c. F. Porsche AG, Stuttgart Special thanks go to Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Berg (Daimler-Benz), Dipl.-Ing. Marc Boderke (Daimler-Benz), Prof.-Dr. Walter Brandstetter (Ford), Dr.-Ing. Wolfgang Held (MAN), Dr.-Ing. Peter Kohoutek (VW), Dr.-Ing. Norbert Metz (BMW), Dipl.-Ing. Georg Schaff
11、ner (Opel), and Dr.-Ing. Dieter Schrmann (VW) as members of the working group that monitored the study under the guidance of Prof. Dr. Dusan Gruden (Porsche). We are grateful for their personal engagement and important assistance. Hans Peter Lenz Christian Cozzarini Vienna, August 1998 vContents Abs
12、tract xi Chapter 1 IntroductionObjective of the Study 1 Chapter 2 The Basics. 3 2.1 Effects of Air Polluting Substances on the Atmosphere 3 2.2 Evaluation MethodologyCritical Consideration of Results 5 2.3 Difference Between Substances with Local and Global Effects on the Atmosphere 5 Chapter 3 Emis
13、sions and Atmospheric Concentrations of Substances with Global Effects 7 3.1 The Greenhouse Effect. 7 3.2 Stratospheric Ozone Depletion 12 3.2.1 Water Vapor 13 3.2.2 Carbon Dioxide 14 3.2.3 Halogenated Hydrocarbons 19 3.2.4 Methane 23 3.2.5 Nitrous Oxide 25 Chapter 4 Exhaust Emission Components with
14、 Local and Regional Effects 31 4.1 Nitrogen Oxides 32 4.1.1 Nitrogen Oxide Emissions in Europe 33 4.1.2 Nitrogen Oxide Emissions in the Federal Republic of Germany 36 4.1.3 Judgment Criteria for the Impact of Nitrogen Oxides on Air Quality 37 4.1.4 Concentrations of Nitrogen Oxides in the Atmosphere
15、 39 4.2 Non-Methane Hydrocarbons 40 4.2.1 Non-Methane Hydrocarbon Emissions in Europe 41 4.2.2 Non-Methane Hydrocarbon Emissions in the Federal Republic of Germany 42 viiEmissions and Air Quality 4.2.3 Concentrations of Non-Methane Hydrocarbons in the Atmosphere 44 4.3 Sulfur Dioxide 44 4.3.1 Sulfur
16、 Dioxide Emissions in Europe 45 4.3.2 Sulfur Dioxide Emissions in the Federal Republic of Germany 46 4.3.3 Judgment Criteria for the Impact of Sulfur Dioxide on Air Quality 48 4.3.4 Concentrations of Sulfur Dioxide in the Atmosphere 50 4.4 Dust and Particulate Matter 52 4.4.1 Airborne Dust Emissions
17、 in Europe 53 4.4.2 Airborne Dust Emissions in the Federal Republic of Germany 54 4.4.3 Judgment Criteria for the Impact of Airborne Dust on Air Quality 55 4.4.4 Concentrations of Airborne Dust in the Atmosphere 58 4.5 Carbon Monoxide 60 4.5.1 Carbon Monoxide Emissions in Europe 60 4.5.2 Carbon Mono
18、xide Emissions in the Federal Republic of Germany 61 4.5.3 Judgment Criteria for the Impact of Carbon Monoxide on Air Quality 63 4.5.4 Concentrations of Carbon Monoxide in the Atmosphere. 63 4.6 Ozone 64 4.6.1 Judgment Criteria for the Impact of Ozone on Air Quality 65 4.6.2 Concentrations of Ozone
19、in the Atmosphere 66 4.7 Benzene 68 4.7.1 Benzene Emissions in the Federal Republic of Germany 69 4.7.2 Judgment Criteria for the Impact of Benzene on Air Quality 69 4.7.3 Concentrations of Benzene in the Atmosphere. 71 4.8 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons 72 4.8.1 Concentrations of Polycyclic Aroma
20、tic Hydrocarbons in the Atmosphere 73 viiiContents Chapter 5 Possible Ways to Influence Emissions from Road TrafficEmission Scenarios 75 5.1 Calculation Model for Determining Emissions from Passenger Car and Heavy-Duty Vehicle Traffic in the Federal Republic of Germany 76 5.2 Legislative Measures 83
21、 5.2.1 Level of Emission Standards 83 5.2.2 In-Use Vehicle Emissions 87 5.2.3 Fuel Composition 89 5.2.4 Testing of In-Use Vehicles 95 5.3 Vehicle User 96 5.4 Traffic Management 98 Chapter 6 Literature 101 Index 115 About the Authors 125 ixAbstract Based on the 1992 VDI Progress Report “Emissions, Ai
22、r Quality, and Effects of Exhaust Gas Constituents“ 127, this study continues to evaluate the current worldwide state of knowledge about the interrelationship between emissions and air quality. By reviewing more than 1,500 literature sources through 1998, the study describes the contribution of pass
23、enger car and commercial vehicle traffic to local and global emission situations, together with the consequences for the environment. Because of their life span, trace gases emitted into the atmosphere by natural sources and by manmade exhaust gases are distinguished as components with global or reg
24、ional/local effects. Trace gases reacting on a global scalesuch as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxidesare considered responsible for the natural “greenhouse effect“ on the earth. Worldwide anthropogenic emissionswhich are emissions from burning fossil fuels in power stations, in
25、dustry, and home heating, as well as emissions from agriculture and stock farmingcontribute 0.5 to 1.5% to this effect. From these components, water vapor followed by carbon dioxide contribute most to the global greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from natural sources represent 96.5% o
26、f total worldwide CO2 emissions, thus exceeding anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions by orders of magnitude. Worldwide passenger car and commercial vehicle traffic contribute 0.5% to total CO2 emissions. Although relatively small, this share of manmade CO2 emissions is nevertheless considered as a
27、dditional emissions that may adversely affect the natural CO2 equilibrium and thus global climate. In addition, methane (CH4) and nitrous oxides (N2O) are important greenhouse gases. Anthropogenic methane emissions represent two-thirds of the total worldwide emissions, and manmade nitrous oxides rep
28、resent one-third of total worldwide emissions. The highest methane emissions stem as much from natural sources such as moors and wetlands as from anthropogenic sources such as wet rice agriculture and stock farming. Methane emissions from road traffic are so marginal that their contribution to the g
29、reenhouse effect can be disregarded. xiEmissions and Air Quality The greatest amounts of nitrous oxides are emitted from forests, grasslands, and oceans. Further emissions are caused by nitrogen-containing fertilizers used in farming. Passenger car and heavy-duty vehicle traffic each contribute 1.6%
30、 to the total anthropogenic emissions of nitrous oxide. Therefore, we can conclude that the contribution of road traffic to emissions with global air quality effects is very small. Regarding emissions that may cause regional and local effects on air quality close to the area where they are emitted,
31、the share contributed by the individual source is not the only consideration. It is also important to compare the existing absolute level against legally prescribed air quality standards and to evaluate the trend of these emissions for future years. Emissions with regional and local effects are carb
32、on monoxide, non-methane hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and suspended particulate matter. Concerning these components, the study provides an overview of the relevant situation within Europe, particularly for the Federal Republic of Germany. The evaluation shows that, depending on the
33、 exhaust substance considered, road traffic emissions already meet existing air quality demands in many cases. For those that do not, they soon will comply with such standards when vehicles with emission control technology adhering to the latest legislative requirements become widely used and replac
34、e “old“ vehicles without emission control equipment. In addition, the calculations performed demonstrate that a distinct downward trend can be expected for all these substances in the years to come. These conclusions are important vis-vis the fact that road traffic, when considered on a relative bas
35、is, contributes 30 to 50% of the total emissions of nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and benzene in the European Union and Germany. With regard to non-methane hydrocarbon emissions, as much as one-third of all non-methane hydrocarbons stem from natural sources, namely, forests. The primary emitters
36、 of sulfur dioxide emissions are power stations and heating stations. These contribute 50 to 60%, whereas road traffic contributes only about 1%. Concerning suspended particulate matter, more than 80% of total emissions come from industrial activities; road traffic contributes less than 10%. xiiAbst
37、ract Finally, the study describes some possibilities for reducing emissions from road traffic through technical and legislative measures. It also quantifies their effect and presents a summary of the findings. Regarding the impact of emission control legislation, the most important result of the cal
38、culations is that the step from EU3 to EU4 standards results in only a marginal effect on road traffic emission reduction or, in other words, on air quality. Substantial emission reductions also can be achieved by traffic management, which allows for smooth riding and avoids energy-wasting and emiss
39、ion-causing stop-and- go conditions. In the context of finding an effective means for in-field emission reductions for the total car population in the Federal Republic of Germany, this study highlights the important role that must be attributed to improved fuel. It shows that particulate matter emis
40、sions could be reduced by up to 20% from passenger cars and up to 10% from trucks if modified fuels (i.e., with 50 ppm sulfur content) were used. The use of low aromatic and low benzene fuels could reduce by 50% the benzene emissions from all passenger car traffic immediately on availability of such
41、 fuels. The study concludes by reminding readers that car users can contribute to the reduction of emissions from road traffic and to the reduction of fuel consumption by meaningful operation and good maintenance of their vehicles. xiiiCHAPTER 1 IntroductionObjective of the Study This study scientif
42、ically reviews the current state of knowledge about air pollution caused by mobile sources. The objective of this investigation was to question the perception frequently triggered in the public that air pollution is almost exclusively caused by road traffic. First, the study evaluates global and reg
43、ional effects of exhaust emissions from road traffic on the atmosphere, and it investigates the impact of globally acting exhaust substances on the depletion of stratospheric ozone, or the greenhouse phenomenon. With emphasis on the European situation, it further establishes an overview of the contr
44、ibution of different emission sources to the total level of given emission components. The study compares existing air quality levels with legislative standards established for protecting the environment and population, in order to put the findings about absolute values and relative shares into an a
45、ccurate perspective. The picture about levels and effects of emissions from road traffic is completed by showing not only historical developments but also (and most importantly) future trends for those exhaust gas constituents that remain under consideration for further legislative measures. By mean
46、s of a computer program developed at the Technical University of Vienna, the study calculates the effect of different emission control measures. It highlights the fact that emission reduction is not solely a technical challenge for the automobile and oil industry, but that an important share also ca
47、n be contributed by vehicle users and intelligent traffic management. 1CHAPTER 2 The Basics The atmosphere of the earth is composed of 21% oxygen and 78% nitrogen, as well as water vapor and trace gases. For millions of years, this atmospheric composition has been subjected to large or small variati
48、ons. This is also true for trace gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2) water vapor, ozone (O3), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), and various others. The composition of the atmosphere is the result of self-stabilizing interactive effects, which lead to a somewhat indifferent equilibrium. Within this
49、environment, natural catas- trophes such as volcanic eruptions can be compensated for without causing a collapse of the ecosystem. However, during the last 100 years, a change with regard to trace gases has been monitored, which is evolving at increasing speed. This change is being attributed to anthropogenic activities 128130. The phenomenon might be explained by the world population explosion and the resulting increase in energy consumption, as well as by increasing indus- trialization and agriculture. 2.1 Effects of Air Polluting Substances on the Atmos
