1、Structures of sentences,Syntax,Syntax is,Openness Ordering words in sequences to express meanings for which no separate word exists. Meanings we want to express far outstretch the resources provided by the lexicon & morphology,Syntax is,Openness Ordering words in sequences to express meanings for wh
2、ich no separate word exists. Meanings we want to express far outstretch the resources provided by the lexicon & morphologyThough the lexicon & morphology are somewhat open (to new members/meanings), syntax gives another way to express new meanings/nuances/ precision/links between ideas,Syntax is,Ope
3、nness Syntax enhances the creativity of expressionAll grammatical systems (phonology, morphology, the lexicon) are open, however openness is a more salient feature in syntax.,Syntax is,Sentences The largest linguistic unit showing grammatical structure (over which patterns apply)* Opposite the morph
4、eme the smallest such unit,Syntax is,Sentences The largest linguistic unit showing grammatical structure (over which patterns apply)* Opposite the morpheme the smallest such unitBloomfield: S= a string of words not included in any larger form by virtue of grammatical structureJohn went home. I saw h
5、im. 2 sentences; bec the 2 are gramly independent,Syntax is,A system of principles constructing & interpreting new sentences (hence, its open)New sentences are quite common, more so than words. Theyre more likely to be considered unremarkable (vs. words),Syntax is,Grammaticality Not to be confused w
6、ith meaningfulness Some grammatical sentences are nonsensical Some ungrammatical sentences are sensical,Syntax is,Grammaticality Not to be confused with meaningfulness Some grammatical sentences are nonsensical Some ungrammatical sentences are sensicalRecognizing the ungrammatical tells us about the
7、 syntax of a language.As across all science, finding problems leads to insights about the system.,Hierarchy: sentence structure,Grouping above the level of morphology and words (the lexicon) and below the sentence, we have another unit which we need to recognize in order to understand language.,Hier
8、archy: sentence structure,Grouping above the level of morphology and words (the lexicon) and below the sentence, we have another unit which we need to recognize in order to understand language.We find evidence for these chunks of words in three tests: movability, contractibility, & structural ambigu
9、ity.,Hierarchy: sentence structure,Grouping: Movability If certain groups always move about together, they constitute a single group,Hierarchy: sentence structure,Grouping: Movability If certain groups always move about together, they constitute a single group A reasonable criterion but imperfect: o
10、n the fence the fence.the net on (p 109),Hierarchy: sentence structure,Grouping: Movability If certain groups always move about together, they constitute a single group A reasonable criterion but imperfect: on the fence the fence.the net on (p 109) However, words that dont belong together dont consi
11、stently move around in concert Cf. the net on (p 109),Hierarchy: sentence structure,Grouping: Contractability The potential for a string of words to be replaced by a single word (if it is, that string = a grmtcl element),Hierarchy: sentence structure,Grouping: Contractability The potential for a str
12、ing of words to be replaced by a single word (if it is, that string = a grmtcl element) Also imperfect: are through the mtns or the line through mtns replaceable?,Hierarchy: sentence structure,Grouping: Contractability The potential for a string of words to be replaced by a single word (if it is, th
13、at string = a grmtcl element) Also imperfect: are through the mtns or the line through mtns replaceable? Again, groups of words which dont belong together cannot be replaced by a single word E.g. chugged along the,Hierarchy: sentence structure,Grouping Meaning differences/structural ambiguity Someti
14、mes a sentence/phrase which has ambiguous meanings can be interpreted by alternative groupings (or construing the structure differently) E.g. to shoot the man with the rifleThis, thus, recognizes the various groups as valid units,Syntactic units,Grammatical units showing unified behavior E.g. morphe
15、mes, words, sentencesclauses & phrases,Syntactic units,Grammatical units showing unified behavior E.g. morphemes, words, sentencesclauses & phrasesClauses Simple sentences: just one verb and one event Complex sentences: combine simple Ss,Syntactic units,Grammatical units showing unified behavior E.g
16、. morphemes, words, sentencesclauses & phrasesClauses Simple sentences: just one verb and one event Complex sentences: combine simple SsSimples Ss or their modified versions = clauses,Syntactic units,Clauses 1. minor clause: basically no structure (e.g. interj.) 2. major clause: refers to real/imagi
17、nary event & “has” a verb and accompanying nouns A. Independent stand alone B. Dependent but correspond to ind. clauses,Syntactic units,Phrases Intermediate-sized units b/w words & clauses,Syntactic units,Phrases Intermediate-sized units b/w words & clausesGrouped by internal structure: NP & VP - fo
18、und in most languages NB nouns & verbs are not separate p.o.s. in all languages,Syntactic units,Phrases Intermediate-sized units b/w words & clausesGrouped by internal structure: NP & VP - found in most languages NB nouns & verbs are not separate p.o.s. in all languagesPP, AdjP, AdvP even less commo
19、n,Syntactic units,NPs Typically refers to some concrete/abstract entity May include: Determiner, Possessive Pron, Demonstrative, Adjective,Syntactic units,NPs Typically refers to some concrete/abstract entity May include: Determiner, Possessive Pron, Demonstrative, Adjective VPs Refers to events tha
20、t NPs are involved in Includes: lexical verb + gram &/or lex free/bnd morphemes,Clause structure,Clauses sequences of phrases of various types Similar to phrase structureSample structures: NP VP I ate NP VP PP I ate at home VP NP PP Are you at home?,Clause structure,Clauses sequences of phrases of v
21、arious types Similar to phrase structureSample structures: NP VP I ate NP VP PP I ate at home VP NP PP Are you at home? PP VP NP In Norway lives a nysse VP NP NP Are you my mother? NP VP NP NP I will give her something precious INT VP NP What is that thing? INT VP NP PP When was the train in Voss?,C
22、lause structure,However. Consider questions which use auxiliaries: Should we go? Do you like me? Will you give that to him?,Clause structure,However. Consider questions which use auxiliaries: Should we go? Do you like me? Will you give that to him?Notice the AUX and its VERB are split,Clause structu
23、re,However. Consider questions which use auxiliaries: Should we go? Do you like me? Will you give that to him?Notice the AUX and its VERB are split We can record such sentences but that would greatly increase the number of sentence patterns that we store.,Clause structure,However. Consider questions
24、 which use auxiliaries: Should we go? Do you like me? Will you give that to him?Notice the AUX and its VERB are split We can record such sentences but that would greatly increase the number of sentence patterns that we store. As youve noticed, linguistics: looks for ways to streamline all language-r
25、elated units we store,Clause structure,However. Consider questions which use auxiliaries: Should we go? Do you like me? Will you give that to him?Notice the AUX and its VERB are split We can record such sentences but that would greatly increase the number of sentence patterns that we store. As youve
26、 noticed, linguistics: & tries to do so by making generalizations/rules. (thus, this increase in sentence patterns to be memorized is rejected in favor of formula which capture pattern regularities),Clause structure,Grammatical relations Furthermorethe NP VP PP variety description, although capturin
27、g generalizations about clause structure, fails to say anything about meaning: Leaving out any acct of systematic sims & difs in mng,Clause structure,Grammatical relations Furthermorethe NP VP PP variety description, although capturing generalizations about clause structure, fails to say anything ab
28、out meaning: Leaving out any acct of systematic sims & difs in mngSuch a description merely specifies possible formal shapes, related only in that they involve similar component units,Clause structure,Grammatical relations Furthermorethe NP VP PP variety description, although capturing generalizatio
29、ns about clause structure, fails to say anything about meaning: Leaving out any acct of systematic sims & difs in mngSuch a description merely specifies possible formal shapes, related only in that they involve similar component unitsGr roles show differences in mng expressed by formally related Ss
30、& also deepens understanding,Grammatical relations,Gr roles show differences in mng expressed by formally related Ss & also deepen understanding:,Grammatical relations,Gr roles show differences in mng expressed by formally related Ss & also deepen understanding: by recognizing grtcl roles or functio
31、ns assocd w/ the formal syntactic shapes it is possible not just to acct for differences of mng expressed by formally re- lated Ss, but also to describe clausal syntax beyond merely listing alternatives,Grammatical relations,Gr roles show differences in mng expressed by formally related Ss & also de
32、epen understanding: by recognizing grtcl roles or functions assocd w/ the formal syntactic shapes it is possible not just to acct for differences of mng expressed by formally re- lated Ss, but also to describe clausal syntax beyond merely listing alternatives3 different types of grtcl functions: Exp
33、eriential roles, Subj/obj, Theme,Grammatical relations,Experiential roles NP VP PP etc tell us sthg a Ss structure But not meaning,Grammatical relations,Experiential roles NP VP PP etc tell us sthg a Ss structure But not meaning1 The Northstar is leaving from track 22 The Northstar is being shunted
34、from track 2,Grammatical relations,Experiential roles NP VP PP etc tell us sthg a Ss structure But not meaning1 The Northstar is leaving from track 22 The Northstar is being shunted from track 2Same phrase patterns (NP VP PP) but NP is an Actor doers of event (in 1) and an Undergoer patient or suffe
35、rer (in 2) (Verb = Event),Grammatical relations,Subject/Object needed in addn to above 3 experiential roles The sniper shot the tourist The tourist was shot by the sniper,Grammatical relations,Subject/Object needed in addn to above 3 experiential roles The sniper shot the tourist The tourist was sho
36、t by the sniper But note how the unfortunate tourist is undergoing in both but functions grammatically differently. i.e. it moves to the front, before the verb; verb agrees w/ NP; NB use of pronoun substitution for the NP and the use of tag Qs.,Grammatical relations,Subject/Object needed in addn to
37、above 3 experiential roles The sniper shot the tourist The tourist was shot by the sniper But note how the unfortunate tourist is undergoing in both but functions grammatically differently. i.e. it moves to the front, before the verb; verb agrees w/ NP; NB use of pronoun substitution for the NP and
38、the use of tag Qs. Thus subject differs from actor,Subject/Object: not so easy,Is it (the S or O) just a formal grtcl role assocd w/ an NP in a particular structural position?,Subject/Object: not so easy,Is it (the S or O) just a formal grtcl role assocd w/ an NP in a particular structural position?
39、 Or is it also a meaningful grtcl reln? (like actor,etc),Subject/Object: not so easy,Is it (the S or O) just a formal grtcl role assocd w/ an NP in a particular structural position? Or is it also a meaningful grtcl reln? (like actor,etc) If yes, consider: Subject = perspective clause is viewed from
40、Viewed from sniper/tourists p.o.v.,Subject/Object: not so easy,Is it (the S or O) just a formal grtcl role assocd w/ an NP in a particular structural position? Or is it also a meaningful grtcl reln? (like actor,etc) If yes, consider: Subject = perspective clause is viewed from Viewed from sniper/tou
41、rists p.o.v. (or) Sub= the thing about which the truth of the proposition can be evaluated,Subject/Object: not so easy,Is it (the S or O) just a formal grtcl role assocd w/ an NP in a particular structural position? Or is it also a meaningful grtcl reln? (like actor,etc) If yes, consider: Subject =
42、perspective clause is viewed from Viewed from sniper/tourists p.o.v. (or) Sub= the thing about which the truth of the proposition can be evaluated (or) Sub= cognitive prominence; events are profiled from the subjects perspective,Subject/Object: not so easy,So, if its also a meaningful grtcl reln? (a
43、ctor, etc) then, what of Object?,Subject/Object: not so easy,So, if its also a meaningful grtcl reln? (actor, etc) then, what of Object? Perhaps it represents the secondary vantage pt,Subject/Object: not so easy,So, if its also a meaningful grtcl reln? (actor, etc) then, what of Object? Perhaps it r
44、epresents the secondary vantage pt NB ditransitive verbs (e.g. give takes 2 objects) Which ever is fronted takes on secondary prominence,Subject/Object: not so easy,Hence S/O are not the construal of the world of experience/experiential meaning;,Subject/Object: not so easy,Hence S/O are not the cons
45、trual of the world of experience/experiential meaning; S/O = selecting perspectives that the speaker wants to representwhich leads perhaps to the hearer adopting the same angle.,Subject/Object: not so easy,Hence S/O are not the construal of the world of experience/experiential meaning; S/O = selecti
46、ng perspectives that the speaker wants to representwhich leads perhaps to the hearer adopting the same angle. AKA the establishment of a shared perspective Lx as interactive; mng as interpersonal,Grammatical relations,Theme (AKA topic) Can be either what the clause is about, or establish a setting f
47、or it: it anchors the message, fixing a pt from the message can be expandedCf German example on p 121,Grammatical relations,Theme (AKA topic) Can be either what the clause is about, or establish a setting for it: it anchors the message, fixing a pt from the message can be expandedCf German example o
48、n p 121 Der Priester & Den Bischof are S & O respectively,Grammatical relations,Theme (AKA topic) Can be either what the clause is about, or establish a setting for it: it anchors the message, fixing a pt from the message can be expandedCf German example on p 121 Der Priester & NPs maintain roles (NOM & ACC)But the theme hinges on which NP comes first,Undergoer indicates patient or sufferers,
