1、Guide to Durable ConcreteReported by ACI Committee 201ACI 201.2R-16First PrintingNovember 2016ISBN: 978-1-945487-39-2Guide to Durable ConcreteCopyright by the American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced or copied, in whole or part, in a
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11、0 Country Club DriveFarmington Hills, MI 48331Phone: +1.248.848.3700Fax: +1.248.848.3701www.concrete.orgThis guide describes specific types of concrete deterioration. Each chapter contains a discussion of the mechanisms involved and the recommended requirements for individual components of concrete,
12、 quality considerations for concrete mixtures, construction proce-dures, and influences of the exposure environment, which are all important considerations to ensure concrete durability.This guide was developed for conventional concrete but is gener-ally applicable to specialty concretes; however, s
13、pecialty concretes, such as roller-compacted or pervious concrete, may have unique durability-related issues that deserve further attention that are not addressed herein.Keywords: abrasion resistance; alkali-aggregate reaction; chemical attack; curing; deterioration; durability; freezing and thawing
14、; physical salt attack, sulfate attack.CONTENTSCHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE, p. 21.1Introduction, p. 21.2Scope, p. 3CHAPTER 2DEFINITIONS, p. 32.1Definitions, p. 3CHAPTER 3MASS TRANSPORT, p. 33.1nullIntroduction, p. 33.2Transport processes in nonreactive porous media, p. 43.3nullFactors affecting
15、mass transport in concrete, p. 53.4Measurement of transport properties, p. 83.5nullObtaining durable concrete, p. 10CHAPTER 4FREEZING AND THAWING OF CONCRETE, p. 104.1Introduction, p. 10Thomas J. Van Dam, Chair R. Douglas Hooton, SecretaryACI 201.2R-16Guide to Durable ConcreteReported by ACI Committ
16、ee 201Reza AhrabliJames M. AldredJon B. ArdahlMohamed BassuoniBruce BlairAndrew J. BoydPaul W. BrownRamon L. CarrasquilloRachel J. DetwilerJonathan E. DongellThano DrimalasKevin J. FolliardHarvey H. HaynesJason H. IdekerFrancis InnisDonald J. JanssenRoy H. KeckMohammad S. KhanKimberly E. KurtisMicha
17、el L. LemingTyler LeyDarmawan LudirdjaMohamad NagiRobert E. NealCharles K. NmaiKarthik H. OblaRobert C. ONeillKyle Austin RidingDavid A. RothsteinHannah C. SchellLawrence L. SutterDavid G. TepkeMichael D. A. ThomasPaul J. TikalskyDavid TrejoOrville R. Werner IITerry J. WillemsMichelle L. WilsonConsu
18、lting MembersW. Barry ButlerBernard ErlinOdd E. Gjorv*William G. HimeCharles J. HookhamAlexander M. LeshchinskyStella Lucie MarusinHoward H. Newlon Jr.Mauro J. ScaliGeorge V. TeodoruNiels ThaulowJ. Derle ThorpeClaude B. Trusty Jr.*Deceased.ACI Committee Reports, Guides, and Commentaries are intended
19、 for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and inspecting construction. This document is intended for the use of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of its content and recommendations and who will accept responsibility for the application of the material
20、it contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.Reference to this document shall not be made in contract documents. If items found in this document are desired by t
21、he Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents, they shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation by the Architect/Engineer.ACI 201.2R-16 supersedes ACI 201.2R-08 and was adopted and published November 2016Copyright 2016, American Concrete Institute.All rights reserved inc
22、luding rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless pe
23、rmission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.14.2Frost attack of concrete made with durable aggre-gates, p. 114.3Frost attack of concrete made with nondurable aggregates, p. 17CHAPTER 5ALKALI-AGGREGATE REACTION, p. 195.1Introduction, p. 195.2Types of reactions, p. 195.3Evaluating a
24、ggregates for potential alkali-aggregate reactivity, p. 225.4Preventive measures, p. 255.5Tests for evaluating preventive measures, p. 285.6Protocols for minimizing the risk of alkali-aggregate reactivity, p. 29CHAPTER 6SULFATE ATTACK, p. 306.1External sulfate attack, p. 306.2Internal sulfate attack
25、, p. 366.3Seawater and brine exposure, p. 37CHAPTER 7CHEMICAL ATTACK, p. 397.1General, p. 397.2Seawater, p. 397.3Acid attack, p. 417.4Fresh water, p. 427.5Carbonation, p. 427.6Industrial chemicals, p. 437.7Deicing and anti-icing chemicals, p. 447.8Environmental structures, p. 45CHAPTER 8PHYSICAL SAL
26、T ATTACK, p. 458.1Introduction, p. 458.2Occurrence, p. 468.3Background, p. 478.4Mechanism, p. 478.5Recommendations, p. 48CHAPTER 9CORROSION OF METALS AND DEGRADATION OF OTHER MATERIALS EMBEDDED IN CONCRETE, p. 489.1Introduction, p. 489.2General principles of corrosion initiation in concrete, p. 489.
27、3Propagation of corrosion, p. 499.4Corrosion-related properties of concreting materials, p. 499.5Mitigating corrosion, p. 509.6Corrosion of prestressed steel reinforcement, p. 539.7Degradation of materials other than steel, p. 539.8Summary, p. 54CHAPTER 10ABRASION, p. 5410.1Introduction, p. 5410.2Te
28、sting concrete for resistance to abrasion, p. 5510.3Factors affecting abrasion resistance of concrete, p. 5510.4Recommendations for obtaining abrasion-resistant concrete surfaces, p. 5710.5Studded tire and tire chain wear on concrete, p. 5810.6Skid resistance of pavements, p. 5810.7Erosion, p. 59CHA
29、PTER 11SUMMARY, p. 60CHAPTER 12REFERENCES, p. 60Authored documents, p. 62CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE1.1IntroductionConcrete is the most widely used construction material in the world. The design, detailing, and execution of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion, and oth
30、er processes of deterioration over its intended service life will determine its durability. Durable concrete will retain its original form, quality, and serviceability when exposed to its environment. Properly designed, proportioned, transported, placed, finished, and cured concrete is capable of pr
31、oviding decades of service with little or no maintenance. Yet certain conditions or environments exist that can lead to concrete deterioration. Deterioration mechanisms are either chem-ical or physical in nature and may originate from within the concrete, or may be the result of the external environ
32、mental exposure. Chemical and physical attacking mechanisms often work synergistically. Depending on the nature of the attack, distress may be concentrated in the paste, aggregate, or rein-forcing components of the concrete, or a combination thereof.The various factors influencing durability and a p
33、articular mechanism of deterioration should be considered in the context of the environmental exposure of the concrete. In addition, consideration should be given to the microclimate to which the specific structural element is to be exposed. The type and severity of deterioration of a given structur
34、e may be affected by its proximity to sources of deleterious agents or agents that facilitate distress, exposure to wind, precipitation, or temperature. For instance, exterior girders in a bridge structure may be exposed to a more aggressive environment than interior girders.The concept of service l
35、ife is increasingly used for the design of new structures. To produce concrete suitable for a particular application, required service life, design require-ments, and expected exposure environments, both macro and micro, should be determined before defining the neces-sary materials and mixture propo
36、rtions.The use of good materials and proper mixture proportioning will not, by itself, ensure durable concrete. Appropriate place-ment practices and workmanship are essential to the produc-tion of durable concrete. Fresh concrete can be consolidated and molded to the shape desired to serve its inten
37、ded purpose. During this stage, a number of properties significantly influ-encing the durability of the hardened concrete are established. Pore structure development, air-void system formation, mate-rial uniformity, and potential for cracking are established at early ages and are important to the ul
38、timate durability of American Concrete Institute Copyrighted Material www.concrete.org2 GUIDE TO DURABLE CONCRETE (ACI 201.2R-16)concrete. As such, durable concrete requires the application of good quality control during construction. Inspection and testing by trained and certified personnel can hel
39、p ensure the use of durable mixtures and proper practices.1.2ScopeThis guide discusses the important mechanisms of concrete deterioration and gives recommendations on how to mitigate or minimize such damage. This guide also addresses dura-bility by first discussing the importance of mass transport a
40、nd then addressing specific modes of attack in separate chapters. These include freezing and thawing, alkali-aggre-gate reaction (AAR), sulfate attack, aggressive chemical attack, physical salt attack, corrosion of metals and other embedded materials, abrasion, or a combination of these. Fire resist
41、ance of concrete and cracking are not addressed directly. Fire resistance is covered in ACI 216.1 and cracking is covered in ACI 224R and ACI 224.1R. While cracking does impact the durability of concrete in severe exposures, the different causes of cracking and their specific impacts are not discuss
42、ed. Cracking is only mentioned in general terms regarding its impact on fluid ingress.CHAPTER 2DEFINITIONS2.1DefinitionsACI provides a comprehensive list of definitions through an online resource, “ACI Concrete Terminology,” https:/www.concrete.org/store/productdetail.aspx?ItemID=CT16. Definitions p
43、rovided herein complement that source.advective transporttransfer of heat or matter via the bulk motion of a fluid.alkali loading (or content)total amount of equivalent alkalis (Na2Oe) in a concrete mixture expressed as mass per volume.calcium sulfoaluminate cementproduct obtained by pulverizing cli
44、nker containing mainly yeelimite Ca4(AlO2)6SO4 that is often used in expansive cements and ultra-high-early-strength cements.diffusionmovement of species, such as ions, gas, or vapor, from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration, independent of the bulk motion of a fluid.el
45、ectrical migrationtransport of electrons or ions due to an electric potential gradient.ice lenslayer of ice, generally parallel to the exposed surface of the concrete, that can produce internal damage and also lead to scaling or delamination.leachingdissolution and removal of soluble compo-nents suc
46、h as calcium hydroxide from concrete.permeabilitythe ability of a given concrete to permit liquids or gases to pass through.permeationflow of a liquid, gas, or vapor within a solid under the action of a pressure gradient.physical salt attackmechanism in which concrete or mortar is damaged as a resul
47、t of salt crystallization pressure.reactive silicaform of silica, often amorphous or crypto-crystalline, that dissolves when in contact with concrete pore solution having a sufficiently high concen-tration of hydroxyl ions.salt weatheringform of deterioration most commonly observed in arid climates
48、where exposure to soluble salts and cyclic variations in temperature and relative humidity can lead to salt crystallization.thaumasitesilicate mineral, colorless to white pris-matic hexagonal crystals typically as acicular radiating groups, with the chemical formula Ca3Si(OH)612(H2O) (SO4)(CO3).CHAP
49、TER 3MASS TRANSPORT3.1nullIntroductionConcrete is a multiphase porous medium consisting of a multiscale porous cement paste matrix with aggregate inclu-sions. Liquid and gas may be present in any pores and micro-cracks. As such, it is susceptible to the ingress and move-ment of substances (fluids or ions) from its environment within and through its pore system. This chapter discusses the transport of gases, liquids, and ions in solution through concrete (Lichtner et al. 1996; Baer 1988; H
