1、 AIIM TR35 95 1012348 050LLL9 8T5 ANSVAIIM TR35-1995 Human and Organizational Issues for Successful Electronic Image Management (EIM) Imp1 eme nt at ion Technical Report AIM Association for Information and Image Management 1 1 O0 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1 i O0 Silver Spring, MD 20910-5603 Telephone 301.
2、587-8202 AIIM TR35 95 m 3032348 050LL20 537 AIIM Catalog No. TR35 O 1995 by the Association for Information and Image Management 11 00 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1100 Silver Spring, MD 20910-5603 USA Tel: (301) 587-8202 Fax: (301) 587-2711 Printed in the United States of America ISBN 0-89258-296-0 AIIM TR3
3、5 95 = LOL2348 050L121 453 ANWAIIM TR35-1995 Technical Report for Information and Image Management - Human and Organizational Issues for Successful Electronic Image Management (El M) Implementation An ANSI Technical Report Prepared by the Association for Information and Image Management Abstract Thi
4、s document provides a framework for understanding and maximizing the human factors associated with successful implementation of electronic imaging systems. AIIM TR35 95 LOL234B 050LL22 39T = Contents Foreword . i 1 Purpose and scope 1 2 References 1 3 Definitions 2 4 Introduction -Adding people to t
5、he productivity equation . 3 5 Macro ergonomics 4 6 7 Workplace ergonomics . 13 8 Designing forms for use with EIM systems . 16 9 Recommendations for EIM implementation success 18 10 Conclusion . 23 Usability and ergonomic interfaces 10 Figures 1 Keyboard layout . 14 2 Workstation chair, keyboard, a
6、nd display 14 Tables 1 Comparison of two management 2 Success through project management 19 paradigms . 9 Foreword This technical report was prepared by AIIM Standards Committee C15, Electronic Software and Systems. This report provides a framework for understanding and maximizing the human factors
7、associated with successful implementation of elec- tronic imaging systems. While the technical report represents the consensus of those listed below, the majority of the text was prepared by Lois Bmss of HDA Consulting (chair of AIIMs Standards Commit- tee on Human and Organizational Issues for Succ
8、ess- ful EIM Implementation), Jerome I. Nadel of Human Factors International, Inc., and Jennifer A. Smith of Unisys Corporation (who shared her expertise in workflow analysis, ergonomics, and the system devel- opment process). Suggestions for improvement to this technical report are welcome and shou
9、ld be sent to the Chair, AIIM Standards Board, 1100 Wayne Avenue, Suite 1100, Silver Spring, Maryland 20910-5603 USA. At the time it approved this technical report, the AIIM Standards Board had the following members: Name of Representative Organization Represented Judy Kilpatrick, Chair Thomas C. Ba
10、gg NIST Jewel M. Drass John C. Gale Information Workstation Association for Information and Image Management Bell and Howell Group Name of Representative Organization Represented Bruce A. Holroyd Roy M. Pierce Xerox Corporation Charles A. Plesums USAA Fernando Podio NIST George Thoma Stephen Urban D
11、elta Information Systems AIIM Standards Committee C 15, Electronic Software and Systems, approved this technical report. The committee had the following members at the time this report was approved. Name of Representative Organization Represented Eastman Kodak Company National Library of Medicine Be
12、tsy A.Fanning, Chair Don M. Avedon Thomas C. Bagg John Ballock Avi Bender Pete Bennett Bob Blackwelder Robert Blatt Brant Bady John B. Breeden William C. Brown Lois R. Bruss Paul Conway Robert W. Cook Terry Cooper William A. Cozzens Donald P. DAmato Jim Daly Charles Dollar Richard Donaldson Eric Eri
13、kson Bruce Evans Tom Fine Henry Frey Bruno B. Glavich Larry Greenberg Berne Grush Dexter S. Holt Buck Horyn Westinghouse Electric Avedon Associates, Inc. NIST Price Waterhouse Vantage Technologies PRS Technology Florida Sheriffs Dept. Trident Data Systems B.C. Archives also called human factors, par
14、tic- ularly in the United States. 3.3 Flicker Image instability caused by the fading and refreshing of the phosphors that create the characters on a dis- play screen. Flicker free images give the perception of stable images. 3.4 Glare Visual discomfort, legibility impairment, or both caused by exces
15、sive variations in luminance between objects within the visual field. 3.5 Invisible grid Specific indents for various levels of information and blank lines or spaces that group related information. 2 AIIM TR35 95 LOL2348 050LL26 T3C W 3.6 Operations The business process used to carry out the objecti
16、ves of an organization. 3.7 Readiness The willingness of employees to adapt to changes in their jobs and work environment. 3.8 Repetitive strain injury Class of medical condition of the joints caused by repetitive motion, often rapid, forceful, andor extreme motion. Examples of repetitive strain inj
17、uries include tendinitis and carpal tunnel syndrome. 3.9 Visual Display Terminal (VDT) An electronic device - consisting of an input device (e.g., keyboard or mouse), a monitor unit (e.g., cath- ode ray tube), and a connection to the central process- ing unit of a computer - on which information com
18、municated to or stored in the computer is pre- sented visually. 4 Introduction - Adding people to the productivity equation Computer technology has unequivocally contributed to the efficiency and speed of data processing. Auto- mated systems reduce staffing requirements by elimi- nating the need for
19、 human intervention and facilitating increased human productivity. Ironically, the intense focus on increased productivity of both systems and operators has traditionally limited cre- ative methodologies for sustaining long-term human productivity. However, recent advances in the under- standing and
20、 implementation of ergonomic principles have produced a comprehensive framework for human engineered computer systems design, imple- mentation, and work practices. The proliferation of computer technology has impacted a majority of the U.S. and international work force. It is predicted that by 1997,
21、 50 percent of Americans will be using VDTs (Visual Display Ter- minals) at work (DeMatteo 1985). This significant increase in the use of VDTs has caused the research community to investigate the impact to humans of working with VDTs. In 1988 the American National Standards Institute, in a collabora
22、tive effort with the Human Factors Society, published the ANSI/HFS 100-1988, the American National Standard for Human Factors Engineering of Visual Display Work- stations. This standard, written for those VDT appli- cations described as text processing, data entry, and data inquiry, “specifies condi
23、tions that have been established as representing acceptable implementa- tion of human factors engineering principles and practices in the design of VDTs, associated furniture, and the office environment in which they are placed.” More recently, the International Standards Organiza- tion (ISO) has in
24、itiated a 17-part standard (IS0 9241), which identifies requirements for both hardware (parts 1-9) and software (parts 10-17) associated with VDTs. Even the European Community has followed suit, creating the Directive EEC/90/270, a standards document entitled “On the minimum health and safety requir
25、ements for work with display screen equip- ment.” This trend in the development of standards and legis- lation responds to the lack of widely accepted and practical guidelines associated with the design, imple- mentation, and use of VDTs. These voluntary and leg- islative guidelines would provide re
26、commendations and requirements for the selection and operation of VDTs. It should be noted that the ergonomic require- ments associated with Electronic Image Management (EIM) systems do differ somewhat from those associ- ated with standard VDTs. These differences come pn- marily from image-initiated
27、 reengineered task requirements (.e., interacting primarily with the image workstation with minimal paper) that create unique implementation and environmental consider- ations. A growing body of research points out that the poten- tial of information technology to transform businesses remains largel
28、y untapped, not because of technical problems but because of failure to address human and organizational issues. According to Ettkin, Helms, and Haynes (1 990), “The effective management of people is critical to the successful implementation and use of new technical systems. Unfortunately, the human
29、 resource receives only cursory or after-the- fact attention when technological decisions are con- sidered.” Ranney and Bevilacqua (1988) note that “a recent study of 20 organizations with new office auto- mation systems found that 16 systems had failed in some way. The reasons: MIS departments miss
30、ed project deadlines by months. Costs mounted beyond projections. End users operated systems improperly or not at all or even sabotaged them openly. What vari- ables lay behind these reasons? Most common were the following human factors: the system didnt match the organizations needs; supervisors di
31、dnt promote use of new systems; senior management didnt fully understand how systems should be implemented.” The issue of implementing new technology is perhaps best summarized by Rousseau (1989) as a result of her case study of five office automation projects: “Implementation: its not so much what
32、you do, but how you do it.” 3 AIIM TR35 95 The rest of this report will systematically identify and review the ergonomic and organizational issues and considerations associated with the selection criteria, implementation criteria, and work practice criteria for EIM systems. 5 Macro ergonomics The sc
33、ience and practice of ergonomics is multidisci- plinary. It analyzes the relationship (or interface) between humans and their environment and, if cor- rectly implemented, maximizes the operating effi- ciency of this interface. Huchingson (198 1) summarizes the goals of an ergonomics program with the
34、 following: (1) improved human performance as shown by increased speed, accuracy, and safety, and less energy expenditure and fatigue; (2) less training and reduced training costs; (3) improved use of man- power through minimizing the need for special skills and aptitudes; (4) reduced loss of time a
35、nd equipment as accidents due to human errors are minimized; and (5) improved comfort and acceptance by the user/ operator. Probably the most significant benefit of electronic image systems (also called document image systems) is the potential for increased system and human pro- ductivity. It has be
36、en demonstrated, in some tasks, that human productivity doubles when we eliminate the paper and allow operators to interact solely with the image of that paper. However, a question that must be addressed in this transition away from paper is, What is the impact to the human? It is appropriate to poi
37、nt out that acceptability of a new technology is as important, if not more impor- tant, than the usability of that technology. Human engineering efforts ensure that systems are usable and make attempts at affecting acceptability (primarily through ease of use), but the majority of operator acceptanc
38、e comes from the organizations introduc- tion of that new system. The key to maximizing the success of electronic imaging system implementation is to manage the change effectively and systemati- cally. This requires that the organization be proactive and start planning for the change well ahead of t
39、he system delivery. 5.1 organizations Sociotechnical Systems Theory starts with the belief that organizations are systems; that is, they are com- prised of interrelated components, such as technol- ogy, materials, and people. These components interact with each other to transform inputs into outputs
40、. The interrelated nature of these components implies that The impact of imaging on people and 1012348 OSOLL27 771 W changes in one component will create changes in other components. Sociotechnical approaches also focus on both the technical aspects of work and the social aspects of work. According
41、to Pava (1983), “In this framework, both technical and social aspects are deemed vital to performance, and improving their overall fit is considered more critical than optimizing one or the other.” In this framework, we can begin to examine how a change in technology, in this case EIM, can impact pe
42、ople. The impact of EIM systems can vary dramatically depending upon their usage. At the most basic level, ELM systems are used as electronic filing cabinets. In this case, the changes experienced by the end user will be primarily changes in work habits (e.g., using elec- tronic versus paper images)
43、. When EIM is employed in more complex applications such as transaction pro- cessing, however, the changes have a much broader impact and affect more aspects of an individuals work experience. Examples of the changes that can be created inadvertently by EIM include changes in the following: - work h
44、abits, - communication patterns, - interpersonal relationships, - conduct of business, - job content, - organizational structure, - career paths, - management style, status. - 5.1.1 Work habits At the most basic level, workers will be asked to give up paper and rely solely on elec- tronic medium for
45、 conducting their work. Like many habits, the “paper habit” may be difficult to break. One new EIM user described herself as a “paper junkie” in describing the difficulty of the transition. 5.1.2 Communication patterns In the EIM environ- ment, employees may no longer need to communicate with people
46、 they used to interact with regularly. For example, eliminating trips to the file room also elimi- nates the opportunity for transaction processors to talk with clerks in the file room. Scanning mail in the mailroom and delivering it electronically eliminates the interaction between the mailroom and
47、 the people they serve. 5.1.3 Interpersonal relationships As a result of changed communication patterns, interpersonal relation- ships may also change. Because face-to-face communi- cation may be eliminated, relationships may also become impersonal. Employees in some EIM installa- tions have felt as
48、 if they have no opportunity for human contact during the course of their work day. 4 ATIP TR35 95 = 3032348 05Pl1128 808 5.1.4 Conduct of business Many important organiza- tional transactions take place informally. People fre- quently joke about the fact that they get many important decisions made
49、in elevators or while waiting in line at the company cafeteria. Other people can simply look at a stack of paper, determine whether the stack is larger or smaller than it was earlier in the day, and know how much work is being accomplished. Imaging systems will eliminate the stack of paper, or other visual signals, and reduce the opportunity for informal conversations. Vital information that was communicated informally may be lost. New methods of conducting business, and new sig- nals for progress, will need to be developed. 5.1.5 Job content Some tasks will disappear while
