1、2.1CHAPTER 2THERMODYNAMICS AND REFRIGERATION CYCLESTHERMODYNAMICS 2.1Stored Energy 2.1Energy in Transition 2.1First Law of Thermodynamics . 2.2Second Law of Thermodynamics . 2.2Thermodynamic Analysis of Refrigeration Cycles. 2.3Equations of State 2.4Calculating Thermodynamic Properties 2.4COMPRESSIO
2、N REFRIGERATION CYCLES 2.6Carnot Cycle 2.6Theoretical Single-Stage Cycle Using a Pure Refrigerant or Azeotropic Mixture. 2.7Lorenz Refrigeration Cycle 2.9Theoretical Single-Stage Cycle Using Zeotropic Refrigerant Mixture 2.10Multistage Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycles . 2.10Actual Refrigeratio
3、n Systems . 2.11ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION CYCLES . 2.13Ideal Thermal Cycle. 2.13Working-Fluid Phase Change Constraints 2.14Working Fluids. 2.15Effect of Fluid Properties on Cycle Performance . 2.16Absorption Cycle Representations . 2.16Conceptualizing the Cycle 2.16Absorption Cycle Modeling 2.17Ammon
4、ia/Water Absorption Cycles . 2.19ADSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS. 2.20Symbols 2.21HERMODYNAMICS is the study of energy, its transforma-Ttions, and its relation to states of matter. This chapter covers theapplication of thermodynamics to refrigeration cycles. The first partreviews the first and seco
5、nd laws of thermodynamics and presentsmethods for calculating thermodynamic properties. The second andthird parts address compression and absorption refrigeration cycles,two common methods of thermal energy transfer.1. THERMODYNAMICSA thermodynamic system is a region in space or a quantity ofmatter
6、bounded by a closed surface. The surroundings includeeverything external to the system, and the system is separated fromthe surroundings by the system boundaries. These boundaries can bemovable or fixed, real or imaginary.Entropy and energy are important in any thermodynamic system.Entropy measures
7、the molecular disorder of a system. The moremixed a system, the greater its entropy; an orderly or unmixed con-figuration is one of low entropy. Energy has the capacity for produc-ing an effect and can be categorized into either stored or transientforms.1.1 STORED ENERGYThermal (internal) energy is
8、caused by the motion of moleculesand/or intermolecular forces.Potential energy (PE) is caused by attractive forces existingbetween molecules, or the elevation of the system.PE = mgz (1)wherem =massg = local acceleration of gravityz = elevation above horizontal reference planeKinetic energy (KE) is t
9、he energy caused by the velocity of mol-ecules and is expressed asKE = mV2/2 (2)where V is the velocity of a fluid stream crossing the system boundary.Chemical energy is caused by the arrangement of atoms com-posing the molecules.Nuclear (atomic) energy derives from the cohesive forces hold-ing prot
10、ons and neutrons together as the atoms nucleus.1.2 ENERGY IN TRANSITIONHeat Q is the mechanism that transfers energy across the bound-aries of systems with differing temperatures, always toward thelower temperature. Heat is positive when energy is added to the sys-tem (see Figure 1).Work is the mech
11、anism that transfers energy across the boundar-ies of systems with differing pressures (or force of any kind), alwaystoward the lower pressure. If the total effect produced in the systemcan be reduced to the raising of a weight, then nothing but work hascrossed the boundary. Work is positive when en
12、ergy is removed fromthe system (see Figure 1).Mechanical or shaft work W is the energy delivered or absorbedby a mechanism, such as a turbine, air compressor, or internal com-bustion engine.Flow work is energy carried into or transmitted across thesystem boundary because a pumping process occurs som
13、ewhereoutside the system, causing fluid to enter the system. It can be moreeasily understood as the work done by the fluid just outside the sys-tem on the adjacent fluid entering the system to force or push it intothe system. Flow work also occurs as fluid leaves the system.Flow work (per unit mass)
14、 = pv (3)The preparation of the first and second parts of this chapter is assigned toTC 1.1, Thermodynamics and Psychrometrics. The third and fourth partsare assigned to TC 8.3, Absorption and Heat Operated Machines. Fig. 1 Energy Flows in General Thermodynamic System2.2 2017 ASHRAE HandbookFundamen
15、tals where p is pressure and v is specific volume, or the volume dis-placed per unit mass evaluated at the inlet or exit.A property of a system is any observable characteristic of thesystem. The state of a system is defined by specifying the minimumset of independent properties. The most common ther
16、modynamicproperties are temperature T, pressure p, and specific volume v ordensity . Additional thermodynamic properties include entropy,stored forms of energy, and enthalpy.Frequently, thermodynamic properties combine to form otherproperties. Enthalpy h is an important property that includes inter-
17、nal energy and flow work and is defined ash u + pv (4)where u is the internal energy per unit mass.Each property in a given state has only one definite value, andany property always has the same value for a given state, regardlessof how the substance arrived at that state.A process is a change in st
18、ate that can be defined as any changein the properties of a system. A process is described by specifyingthe initial and final equilibrium states, the path (if identifiable), andthe interactions that take place across system boundaries during theprocess.A cycle is a process or a series of processes w
19、herein the initialand final states of the system are identical. Therefore, at the conclu-sion of a cycle, all the properties have the same value they had at thebeginning. Refrigerant circulating in a closed system undergoes acycle.A pure substance has a homogeneous and invariable chemicalcomposition
20、. It can exist in more than one phase, but the chemicalcomposition is the same in all phases.If a substance is liquid at the saturation temperature and pressure,it is called a saturated liquid. If the temperature of the liquid islower than the saturation temperature for the existing pressure, it isc
21、alled either a subcooled liquid (the temperature is lower than thesaturation temperature for the given pressure) or a compressed liq-uid (the pressure is greater than the saturation pressure for the giventemperature).When a substance exists as part liquid and part vapor at the sat-uration temperatur
22、e, its quality is defined as the ratio of the mass ofvapor to the total mass. Quality has meaning only when the sub-stance is saturated (i.e., at saturation pressure and temperature).Pressure and temperature of saturated substances are not indepen-dent properties.If a substance exists as a vapor at
23、saturation temperature andpressure, it is called a saturated vapor. (Sometimes the term drysaturated vapor is used to emphasize that the quality is 100%.)When the vapor is at a temperature greater than the saturation tem-perature, it is a superheated vapor. Pressure and temperature of asuperheated v
24、apor are independent properties, because the tempera-ture can increase while pressure remains constant. Gases such as airat room temperature and pressure are highly superheated vapors.1.3 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICSThe first law of thermodynamics is often called the law of con-servation of energy. T
25、he following form of the first-law equation isvalid only in the absence of a nuclear or chemical reaction.Based on the first law or the law of conservation of energy, forany system, open or closed, there is an energy balance asorEnergy in Energy out = Increase of stored energy in systemFigure 1 illu
26、strates energy flows into and out of a thermodynamicsystem. For the general case of multiple mass flows with uniformproperties in and out of the system, the energy balance can bewritten(5)where subscripts i and f refer to the initial and final states, re-spectively.Nearly all important engineering p
27、rocesses are commonly mod-eled as steady-flow processes. Steady flow signifies that all quanti-ties associated with the system do not vary with time. Consequently,(6)where h u + pv as described in Equation (4).A second common application is the closed stationary system forwhich the first law equatio
28、n reduces toQ W = m(uf ui)system(7)1.4 SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICSThe second law of thermodynamics differentiates and quantifiesprocesses that only proceed in a certain direction (irreversible) fromthose that are reversible. The second law may be described in sev-eral ways. One method uses the conc
29、ept of entropy flow in an opensystem and the irreversibility associated with the process. The con-cept of irreversibility provides added insight into the operation ofcycles. For example, the larger the irreversibility in a refrigerationcycle operating with a given refrigeration load between two fixe
30、dtemperature levels, the larger the amount of work required to oper-ate the cycle. Irreversibilities include pressure drops in lines andheat exchangers, heat transfer between fluids of different tempera-ture, and mechanical friction. Reducing total irreversibility in acycle improves cycle performanc
31、e. In the limit of no irreversibili-ties, a cycle attains its maximum ideal efficiency.In an open system, the second law of thermodynamics can bedescribed in terms of entropy asdSsystem= + misi mese+ dI (8)wheredSsystem= total change within system in time dt during processmisi= entropy increase caus
32、ed by mass entering (incoming)mese= entropy decrease caused by mass leaving (exiting)Q/T = entropy change caused by reversible heat transfer between system and surroundings at temperature TdI = entropy caused by irreversibilities (always positive)Equation (8) accounts for all entropy changes in the
33、system. Re-arranged, this equation becomesQ = T (mese misi) + dSsys dI (9)Net amount of energyadded to systemNet increase of storedenergy in system=minupvV22- gz+inmoutupvV22- gz+outQW+mfuV22- gz+fmiuV22- gz+isystem=mhV22- gz+all streamsenteringmhV22- gz+all streamsleaving QW+0=QT-Thermodynamics and
34、 Refrigeration Cycles 2.3In integrated form, if inlet and outlet properties, mass flow, andinteractions with the surroundings do not vary with time, the generalequation for the second law is(Sf Si)system= + I (10)In many applications, the process can be considered to operatesteadily with no change i
35、n time. The change in entropy of the systemis therefore zero. The irreversibility rate, which is the rate ofentropy production caused by irreversibilities in the process, can bedetermined by rearranging Equation (10):(11)Equation (6) can be used to replace the heat transfer quantity.Note that the ab
36、solute temperature of the surroundings with whichthe system is exchanging heat is used in the last term. If the tempera-ture of the surroundings is equal to the system temperature, heat istransferred reversibly and the last term in Equation (11) equals zero.Equation (11) is commonly applied to a sys
37、tem with one massflow in, the same mass flow out, no work, and negligible kinetic orpotential energy flows. Combining Equations (6) and (11) yields(12)In a cycle, the reduction of work produced by a power cycle (orthe increase in work required by a refrigeration cycle) equals theabsolute ambient tem
38、perature multiplied by the sum of irreversibil-ities in all processes in the cycle. Thus, the difference in reversibleand actual work for any refrigeration cycle, theoretical or real, oper-ating under the same conditions, becomes(13)Another second-law method to describe performance of engi-neering d
39、evices is the concept of exergy (also called the availabil-ity, potential energy, or work potential), which is the maximumuseful work that could be obtained from the system at a given statein a specified environment. There is always a difference betweenexergy and the actual work delivered by a devic
40、e; this differencerepresents the room for improvement. Note that exergy is a propertyof the system/environment combination and not of the systemalone. The exergy of a system in equilibrium with its environmentis zero. The state of the environment is referred to as the dead state,because the system c
41、annot do any work.Exergy transfer is in three forms (heat, work, and mass flow), andis given byXheat= Xwork= Xmass= mwhere = (h h0) T0(s s0) + (V 2/2) + gz is flow exergy.Exergy balance for any system undergoing any process can beexpressed asTaking the positive direction of heat transfer as to the s
42、ystem andthe positive direction of work transfer as from the system, the gen-eral exergy balance relations can be expressed explicitly as1.5 THERMODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF REFRIGERATION CYCLESRefrigeration cycles transfer thermal energy from a region of lowtemperature TRto one of higher temperature. Usua
43、lly the higher-temperature heat sink is the ambient air or cooling water, at tem-perature T0, the temperature of the surroundings.The first and second laws of thermodynamics can be applied toindividual components to determine mass and energy balances andthe irreversibility of the components. This pr
44、ocedure is shown inlater sections in this chapter.Performance of a refrigeration cycle is usually described by acoefficient of performance (COP), defined as the benefit of thecycle (amount of heat removed) divided by the required energyinput to operate the cycle:COP (14)For a mechanical vapor compre
45、ssion system, the net energy sup-plied is usually in the form of work, mechanical or electrical, andmay include work to the compressor and fans or pumps. Thus,COP = (15)In an absorption refrigeration cycle, the net energy supplied isusually in the form of heat into the generator and work into thepum
46、ps and fans, orCOP = (16)In many cases, work supplied to an absorption system is verysmall compared to the amount of heat supplied to the generator, sothe work term is often neglected.Applying the second law to an entire refrigeration cycle showsthat a completely reversible cycle operating under the
47、 same con-ditions has the maximum possible COP. Departure of the actualcycle from an ideal reversible cycle is given by the refrigeratingefficiency:R= (17)The Carnot cycle usually serves as the ideal reversible refrigera-tion cycle. For multistage cycles, each stage is described by a revers-ible cyc
48、le.Xin Xout Xdestroyed= Xsystem(general)Net exergy transfer by heat, work, and massExergy destructionChange in exergyQT-revmsinmsout+ImsoutmsinQTsurr-=ImsoutsinhouthinTsurr-=WactualWreversibleT0I+=1T0T-QWWsurr (for boundary work)W (for other forms of work)=dXsystem/dt(general, in rate form)Rate of net exergy transfer by heat, work, and massRate of exergy destructionRate of change in exergyXinXout Xdestroyed1T0Tk-QkWP0V2V1 min+ moutXdestroyedX2X1=Useful refrigerating effectNet energy supplied from external sources-QevapWnet-
