1、Designator: Meta Bold 24/26Revision Note: Meta Black 14/16STP-PT-014DATA SUPPORTING COMPOSITE TANK STANDARDS DEVELOPMENTFOR HYDROGEN INFRASTRUCTURE APPLICATIONSSTP-PT-014 DATA SUPPORTING COMPOSITE TANK STANDARDS DEVELOPMENT FOR HYDROGEN INFRASTRUCTURE APPLICATIONS Prepared by: Norman L. Newhouse, Ph
2、.D., P.E. Lincoln Composites Craig Webster, P. Eng. Powertech Labs Date of Issuance: February 10, 2008 This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and the ASME Standards Technology, LLC (ASME ST-LLC). Neither ASME, ASME ST-LLC, NREL, Lincol
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10、 Composite Tank Standards Development STP-PT-014 iii TABLE OF CONTENTS FOREWORD v ABSTRACT vi 1 HISTORY OF SAFETY EXPERIENCE OF COMPOSITE PRESSURE VESSELS 1 1.1 Aerospace/Defense Use of Composite Pressure Vessels 1 1.1.1 Applications . 1 1.1.2 Materials.1 1.1.3 Standards 2 1.1.4 Field service . 2 1.
11、2 Commercial use of Composite Cylinders 2 1.2.1 Applications . 2 1.2.2 Materials.3 1.2.3 Standards 3 1.2.4 Field Service. 4 1.3 Composite Containers for Natural Gas and Hydrogen Vehicle Applications . 4 1.3.1 Applications . 4 1.3.2 Cylinder Construction 5 1.3.3 Materials.6 1.3.4 Standards 7 1.3.5 Fi
12、eld Service. 8 2 DEVELOPMENT OF ASME AND OTHER STANDARDS. 13 2.1 Background Data Supports Standards Development. 13 2.2 Performance vs. Design Standards 13 2.2.1 General Issues 13 2.2.2 Safety Factors. 14 2.3 Testing to Validate Requirements . 17 2.3.1 FMEA Approach to Validation Testing . 17 2.3.2
13、Materials Testing 17 2.3.3 Cylinder testing 20 2.4 Batch and Acceptance Testing 30 3 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FATIGUE TESTING 33 3.1 ASME Section VIII Division 3, Para KD-1260 Approach . 33 3.2 Composite Cyclic Fatigue . 33 3.3 Liner Cyclic Fatigue 35 3.4 Composite vs. Liner Fatigue Limits 36 4 STRESS RU
14、PTURE TESTING 37 4.1 Stress Rupture Studies. 37 4.2 Field Testing and Experience 39 4.3 Methods for Accelerating Tests and Extrapolating Data. 40 5 SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 42 REFERENCES. 43 ANNEX A MATERIAL TEST PROCEDURES . 46 STP-PT-014 Data Supporting Composite Tank Standards Development iv A
15、NNEX B CYLINDER QUALIFICATION TEST PROCEDURES 49 ANNEX C BATCH TESTS55 FIGURES56 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 61 ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .62 LIST OF TABLES Table 1 - Typical Fiber Properties 6 Table 2 - Field Failures.9 Table 3 - Fiber Stress Ratios.15 Table 4 - Recommended Material Testing19 Table 5 - Recomm
16、ended Cylinder Qualification Testing .28 Table 6 - Qualification for Design Changes .29 Table 7 - Recommended Batch Testing32 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 - Composite Cyclic Fatigue Lives 34 Figure 2 - Carbon Composite Fatigue Life vs. Load Level 35 Figure 3 - Glass Composite Strand Stress Rupture Desig
17、n Chart.37 Figure 4 - Maximum Likelihood Estimates of Lifetimes of Aramid/Epoxy for Vessels, with Quantile Probabilities38 Figure 5 - Carbon Composite Strand Stress Rupture Design Chart39 Figure 6 - All-composite fuel tank impacted by bridge (front view)56 Figure 7 - All-Composite Fuel Tank Impacted
18、 by Bridge (top view).56 Figure 8 - All-Composite Fuel Tank Impacted by Curb.57 Figure 9 - All-Composite Fuel Tank Dropped from Vehicle57 Figure 10 - All-Composite Tank with Embedded Debris .58 Figure 11 - Hijacked NGV Bus.58 Figure 12 - Bus with Fire in Engine Compartment.59 Figure 13 - NGV Bus wit
19、h Fire Damage 59 Figure 14 - All-Composite Fuel Containers that are Roof Mounted in Buses60 Figure 15 - All-Composite Fuel Containers that are Floor Mounted on Buses 60 Data Supporting Composite Tank Standards Development STP-PT-014 v FOREWORD Commercialization of hydrogen fuel cells, in particular
20、fuel cell vehicles, will require development of an extensive hydrogen infrastructure comparable to that which exists today for petroleum. This infrastructure must include the means to safely and efficiently generate, transport, distribute, store and use hydrogen as a fuel. Standardization of pressur
21、e retaining components, such as tanks, piping and pipelines, will enable hydrogen infrastructure development by establishing confidence in the technical integrity of products. Since 1884, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) has been developing codes and standards (C standards used an
22、d field service issues. The use of performance-based requirements is discussed, as is the background of safety factors used for various reinforcing fibers. Recommendations are made for validation testing of materials and pressure vessels, with consideration for failure modes and effects analysis (FM
23、EA) involving the field use of the vessels. Cyclic fatigue and stress rupture are discussed, with examples of laboratory testing and correlation from field experience. Data Supporting Composite Tank Standards Development STP-PT-014 1 1 HISTORY OF SAFETY EXPERIENCE OF COMPOSITE PRESSURE VESSELS Note:
24、 Different industries use different nomenclature for pressure vessels and their components or features. This report attempts to reflect the terminology of the industry being discussed, although terms may be used interchangeably. The ASME boiler code and the industry addressing stationary units gener
25、ally use the term “pressure vessel.”. The transportation industry generally uses the term “cylinder”. The alternative fueled vehicle industry generally use the terms “container” or “cylinder”. The term “tank” may also be used. The boiler and stationary applications generally use the term “nozzle” fo
26、r the end openings where the gas moves in and out, while other industries often use the term “boss”. 1.1 Aerospace/Defense Use of Composite Pressure Vessels 1.1.1 Applications The origin of fiber reinforced pressure vessels was with the development of composite rocket motor cases in the 1950s. These
27、 motor cases were made with glass fiber reinforcement with a rubber liner/insulator. They were designed for single use, and had safety factors lower than might be used on a compressed gas pressure vessel due to the short duration of pressure and loading. Early composite motor cases included Polaris
28、and Minuteman. The 1970s brought the use of aramid and carbon fibers for rocket motor cases for military and space applications, including Peacekeeper, Trident D-5 and Orbus. The technology from these early rocket motor cases was the basis for compressed gas pressure vessels that were used for appli
29、cations such as aircraft engine restart or emergency floatation bag inflation. Internal volume of these cylinders was typically in the range of 1003000 cubic inches. The 1960s and 1970s brought the use of metallic liners. Applications included U.S. Navy life raft inflation, escape slide and flotatio
30、n bag inflation for aircraft, and pressurant sources for missile systems such as Titan and Pershing and aircraft such as the F-16 and X-29. Composite pressure vessels with stainless steel liners and glass fiber reinforcement were used as oxygen containers on Skylab. Spherical pressure vessels with t
31、itanium liners and aramid fiber reinforcement are used on the Space Shuttle to contain helium and nitrogen. Pressure vessel sizes have ranged from an internal volume of 66 cubic centimeters (4 cubic inches) to 17 cubic meters (600 cubic feet). Operating pressures typically range from (150 bar to 415
32、 bar (2200 psi to 6000 psi), but some applications have used pressures of 35 bar (500 psi) or lower and as high as 1725 bar (25,000 psi). 1.1.2 Materials Glass fiber reinforcements have been used since the 1950s. Aramid and carbon fiber were used for pressure vessels beginning in the 1970s, although
33、 the carbon fiber had a high specific cost (dollars per unit strength) at the time. Strength and cost improvements to carbon fiber made carbon fiber a more competitive fiber beginning in the late 1980s. Resin matrix materials were generally epoxy or modified epoxy. Polyester and vinyl ester resins w
34、ere also used. Liners were initially made of rubber, with use in both rocket motor cases and pressure vessels. Metal liners were then developed for pressure vessels, often using aluminum and steel. Titanium and Inconel liners were used for high performance applications such as the Space Shuttle. STP
35、-PT-014 Data Supporting Composite Tank Standards Development 2 1.1.3 Standards Custom and specialized military specifications were often used for pressure vessels, such as SEASYSCOMSPEC Ser 3428 and Mil-C-24604 for life raft inflation pressure vessels, and Mil-T-25363 for aircraft engine restart pre
36、ssure vessels. Mil-Std-1522 was often used for space applications. Rocket motor cases have generally not been designed and built to standards. They generally are built to a custom specification, with burst and applied loads testing to verify performance. Safety factors for carbon and aramid are ofte
37、n as low as 1.5 for well controlled and shorter term applications such as for missile pressurant systems and space shuttle. Safety factors for glass fiber reinforced pressure vessels are typically between 3.3 and 4.0 for military applications. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)/American In
38、stitute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) S-081 39 is a more recent standard developed for composite pressure vessels used in aerospace applications, and focuses more on performance requirements and reliability than on safety factors. 1.1.4 Field service There are likely a few hundred thousand
39、composite pressure vessels in defense and aerospace applications, typically from 150 to 415 bar (22006000 psi) service pressure. Service life typically ranges from 5 to 15 years. Some applications have shorter or longer lifetimes. The life for a pressure vessel in a missile application might have a
40、lifetime of only 1 year. The pressure vessels on the Space Shuttle have been in service for over 25 years, although not at full pressure for much of that time. The field service has shown a high level of safety, with few, if any, field failures. One exception was the life raft application. In this c
41、ase, pressure vessel ruptures did occur. This was due to a combination of a specification that did not fully meet the needs of the application, quality problems during manufacturing of the pressure vessels, and stress rupture characteristics of glass fiber. When the problem was identified, the quali
42、ty problems were corrected and a new specification was prepared. There were also three pressure vessel ruptures in a military aircraft application. This occurred when glass fiber cylinders were left in service beyond the life specified and the contained pressure was higher than specified. This resul
43、ted in stress rupture failures. 1.2 Commercial use of Composite Cylinders 1.2.1 Applications Commercial use of composite cylinders developed significantly starting in the 1970s based on the defense/aerospace technology, using metallic liners with full composite or hoop overwrap reinforcement. The in
44、itial commercial applications were for emergency breathing cylinders, such as for firemen and for mine safety, and escape slide inflation, such as for the Boeing 767 aircraft. These cylinders were of a size as to be easily portable, up to 230 mm (9 in.) in diameter and 760 mm (30 in.) long. The size
45、 of cylinders gradually increased with time, and the number of applications increased. Cylinders might also be used for ground storage or as accumulators, such as for tensioning systems on off-shore oil platforms 16. These cylinders might be up to 610 mm (24 in.) in diameter and 3 m (10 feet) long.
46、More recent applications include pressurant tanks, such as for paint ball guns, and liquefied propane gas (LPG) tanks. Although not strictly pressure vessels, composite risers for oil platforms were developed based on technology from composite pressure vessels. These composite risers must be capable
47、 of containing Data Supporting Composite Tank Standards Development STP-PT-014 3 internal pressure, as with pressure vessels, but must also withstand external pressure, tension loads and bending loads. 1.2.2 Materials The first commercial composite cylinders were made of glass fiber and epoxy resin
48、with helical and hoop windings over an aluminum liner, typically a 6061 alloy. Shortly after, cylinders with thicker liners and only a hoop wrapped were manufactured. Carbon steel liners were then introduced for hoop wrapped cylinders. Polyester and vinyl ester resins were introduced as alternatives
49、 to the epoxy resin matrix. Aramid fibers were introduced in the early to mid-1970s. Carbon fiber was available in the 1970s, but the cost per unit strength was not competitive. Carbon fiber development resulted in a cost effective solution by the late 1980s and early 1990s. Plastic liners were introduced to the market in the early 1990s. 1.2.3 Standards Composite cylinders were introduced into the market without the benefit of enabling regulations. Therefore, regulatory approvals in the form of special permits or exemptions from the regulations were required in order to transport pre
