1、Designation: F 1209 08Standard Guide forEcological Considerations for the Use of Oil SpillDispersants in Freshwater and Other Inland Environments,Ponds and Sloughs1This standard is issued under the fixed designation F 1209; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforigin
2、al adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 This guide covers the use of oil spill dispersants to assistin t
3、he control of oil spills. The guide is written with the goal ofminimizing the environmental impacts of oil spills; this goal isthe basis on which the recommendations are made. Aestheticand socioeconomic factors are not considered, although theseand other factors are often important in spill response
4、.1.2 Spill responders have available several means to controlor clean up spilled oil. In this guide, the use of dispersants isgiven equal consideration with other spill countermeasures. Itis not considered as a “last resort” after all other methods havefailed.1.3 This is a general guide only. It ass
5、umes the oil to bedispersible and the dispersant to be effective, available, appliedcorrectly, and in compliance with relevant government regula-tions. In the assessment of environmental sensitivity, it isassumed that the dispersant is nonpersistent in the naturalenvironment. Oil, as used in this gu
6、ide, includes crude oils andrefined petroleum products. Differences between individualdispersants or between different oil products are not consid-ered.1.4 The guide is organized by habitat type, for example,small ponds and lakes, rivers and streams, and land. Itconsiders the use of dispersants prim
7、arily to protect habitatsfrom impact (or to minimize impacts).1.5 This guide applies only to freshwater and other inlandenvironments. It does not consider the direct application ofdispersants to subsurface waters.1.6 In making dispersant use decisions, appropriate govern-ment authorities should be c
8、onsulted as required by law.1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of thesafety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is theresponsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-bility of regulatory limitations
9、prior to use.2. Referenced Documents2.1 ASTM Standards:2F 2532 Guide for Determining Net Environmental Benefitof Dispersant Use3. Significance and Use3.1 This guide is meant to aid local and regional responseteams who may use it during spill response planning and spillevents.3.2 This guide should be
10、 adapted to site specific circum-stance.4. Environment CoveredPonds and Sloughs4.1 Ponds and sloughs are small isolated water bodies thatare not part of major water systems. They have a dynamicecology, and a wide mixture of animal and plant species. Innorthern regions, these water bodies may freeze
11、to the bottomand do not sustain a wide variety of aquatic species.4.2 While most of these bodies are naturally occurring andexist throughout the year, some may be man-made. In aridclimates, the existence of these bodies may be seasonal.4.3 The characteristics of these water bodies are:4.3.1 Open wat
12、er area of less than 10 hectares,4.3.2 Shallow water with a maximum depth of 1 to 1.5 m,4.3.3 Soft bottom with a high organic content,4.3.4 May have alkaline or acidic water,4.3.5 No well defined inlet or outlet, and4.3.6 Poorly defined shoreline consisting of floating mats ofvegetation.1This guide
13、is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F20 on HazardousSubstances and Oil Spill Response and is the direct responsibility of SubcommitteeF20.13 on Treatment.Current edition approved March 1, 2008. Published March 2008. Originallyapproved in 1989. Last previous edition approved in 1999 as F 1209
14、 89 (1999).2For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, orcontact ASTM Customer Service at serviceastm.org. For Annual Book of ASTMStandards volume information, refer to the standards Document Summary page onthe ASTM website.1Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Dri
15、ve, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.5. Background5.1 The effects of oil and dispersed oil on these aquaticenvironments have been the subject of numerous studies. Thestudies have involved both intentional experimental spills andstudies undertaken during actual spill situa
16、tions (1-6).35.2 There have been a number of studies on the impact of oiland oil/dispersant mixtures on microbiological systems andplankton (7-16).5.3 The principal biotic components of such water bodiesare a variety of fauna and flora. The aquatic flora include algae(planktonic and attached) and fl
17、oating or submerged vascularplants. Terrestrial flora include grasses, moss, lichens, herbs,forbs, and woody plants.5.4 The fauna include invertebrates (molluscs, crustaceans,worms), fish, a variety of waterfowl and seabirds (ducks, loons,gulls, terns, and herons), mammals, such as beaver andmuskrat
18、, and in many areas, significant human activity. Therehave been some studies on the effects of oil and oil/dispersantmixtures on fauna (17, 18). The distribution and compositionof species is a function of climate, local geography and soiltype, and human use of the area (19).5.5 Studies of the effect
19、s of oil on vegetation includelaboratory work on the effects on willows, moss, lichen, blackspruce, and sedge. These studies showed that the pouring of oildirectly on the vegetation was lethal to willow and moss, andcaused some nonpermanent damage to the other species(20-29).5.6 Floating leaves are
20、wetted and penetrated by oil fromslicks while younger floating leaves whose cuticles are intactare more resistant to penetration by oil. Penetration occursmost readily in areas where there is damage to the leaf causedby insects or mechanical abrasion.5.7 Oil is retained in areas of dense vegetation
21、and isreleased slowly. Dispersants applied soon after a spill appear tospeed the movement of the slick through the vegetation if thereis some water movement. Only the oil that contacts the leavescauses some damage. Leaves and stems that are subsurface arenot damaged by the presence of oil. Oil slick
22、s that are restrictedto contact of the stem areas near the water surface are not veryinjurious.5.8 Field studies in northern environments have shown littlelong term effects of spilled oil. There have been few studies onthe effects of dispersed oil in these environments.5.9 Although oil may cause ext
23、ensive damage to vegetationgrowing in low-lying wetlands and shorelines of bog lakes,plants that grow from rhizomes or healthy portions of aerialtissue (sedge and willow) have a high recovery potential.Long-term damage to root systems could, however, slowrecovery of the vegetation in impacted areas.
24、 This may be ofless importance in areas with an elevated water table (boglakes).5.10 Laboratory studies of the foliar damage to moss,lichen, willow, blackspruce, and sedge by dispersants indicatesome damage, but this is generally not lethal. Plants treatedwith dispersants recover in most cases. Howe
25、ver, foliar dam-age may increase the plants susceptibility to pathogens.5.11 Field studies on the effects of the direct spraying ofplants with dispersants indicated that the short-term effect ofdispersants to individual plants was less than that incurredthrough natural causes. No long term effects w
26、ere found andseasonal growth was not affected.5.12 Studies of the effects of dispersants and dispersed oilon the microbiological community show that the characteristicsof the dispersant are critical. The dispersant should have noresidues or components toxic to microbes or microbial pro-cesses.6. Gen
27、eral Considerations for Making Dispersant UseDecisions6.1 The dispersant use decision is, in this case as mostothers, one of trade-offs. The use of dispersants can reduce theadverse effects of spilled oil on certain biological species at theexpense of other components of the ecosystem.6.2 Guide F 25
28、32 should be followed before making adecision to use dispersants in a river or creek.6.3 In most cases, the mortality of individual creatures is ofless concern than the destruction of habitat. The repopulationof areas after the spill will occur naturally when an areabecomes a suitable habitat for a
29、given species.7. Recommendations7.1 Dispersant use in ponds and sloughs, and their borderingvegetation, should be considered if a spill poses a significantthreat to indigenous wildlife or its habitat. In evaluating thepotential for dispersant use, consideration should be given tothe alternatives of
30、leaving the oil untreated or the use ofmechanical recovery equipment. In many cases, a spill re-sponse operation can cause serious damage to a pond or sloughhabitat, or a disruption of nesting and breeding activities.8. Keywords8.1 dispersants; environmental sensitivity; freshwater; in-land; oil spi
31、ll; oil spill dispersants; ponds; sloughs3The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end ofthis guide.F1209082REFERENCES(1) Miller, M. C., Vestal, J. R., Mozley, S., Butler, M., and Hobbie, J. E.,“Effects of Prudhoe Crude Oil Spills on Coastal Tundra Ponds,”Energy/Env
32、ironment II. U.S. EPA-600/9-77-012, 1977, pp. 521529.(2) Brown, H. M., Goudey, J. S., Fogh, J. M., Cheng, S. K., Dale, M.,Hoddinott, J., Quaife, L. R., and Westlake, D. W. S., “Dispersion ofSpilled Oil in Freshwater Systems: Field Trial of a Chemical Dispers-ant,” Oil and Chemical Pollution, Vol 6,
33、1990, pp.3754.(3) Nagy, E., Scott, B. F., and Hart, J., “The Fate of Oil and Oil-DispersantMixtures in Freshwater Ponds,” Science of the Total Environment, Vol.35, No. 2, 1984, pp. 115133.(4) Scott, B. F., and Glooschenko, V., “Impact of Oil and Oil-DispersantMixtures on Flora and Water Chemistry in
34、 Freshwater Ponds,” Scienceof the Total Environment, Vol 35, No. 2, 1984, pp. 169190.(5) Scott, B. F., Nagy, E., Sherry, J. P., Dutka, B. J., Glooschenko, V.,Snow, N. B., and Wade, P. J., “Ecological Effects of Oil-DispersantMixtures in Fresh Water,” Proceedings of 1979 Oil Spill Conference,Los Ange
35、les, pp. 565571.(6) Snow, N. B., and Scott, B. F., “The Effect and Fate of Crude Oil Spillon Two Arctic Lakes,” Proceedings of 1975 Oil Spill Conference, SanFrancisco, pp. 527534.(7) Bergstein, P. E., and Vestal, J. R., “Crude Oil Biodegradation in ArcticTundra Ponds,” Arctic, Vol 31, No. 3, 1978, p
36、p. 158169.(8) Atlas, R. M., and Busdosh, M., “Microbial Degradation of Petroleumin the Arctic,” Proceedings of the Third International BiodegradationSymposium, Applied Science, eds. J. M. Sharpley and A. M. Kaplan,1976, pp. 7985.(9) Breuil, C., and Shindler, D. B., “Effects of Crude Oil on Bacterial
37、 andFungal Populations in Fresh Water Artificial Ponds,” (Abstract),Annual Meeting of American Society for Microbiology 77, 1977, p.269.(10) Dutka, B. J., Sherry, J., Scott, B. F., and Kwan, K. K.,“ Effects ofOil-Dispersant Mixtures on Fresh Water Microbial Populations,”Canadian Research, Vol 13, No
38、. 5, 1980, pp. 5862.(11) Federle, T. W., Vestal, J. R., Hater, G. R., and Miller, M. C., “Effectsof Prudhoe Bay Crude Oil on Primary Production and Zooplankton inArctic Tundra Thaw Ponds,” Marine Environmental Research, Vol 2,No. 1, 1979, pp. 318.(12) Miller, M. C., Alexander, V., and Barsdate, R. J
39、., “The Effects of OilSpills on Phytoplankton in anArctic Lake and Ponds,” Arctic, Vol 31,No. 3, 1978, pp. 192218.(13) Miller, M. C., Hater, G. R., and Vestal, J. R., “Effect of PrudhoeCrude Oil on Carbon Assimilation by Planktonic Algae in an ArcticPond,” Environmental Chemistry and Cycling Process
40、es: Proceed-ings of a Symposium, April 28 to May 1, 1976, Augusta, GA.(14) Scott, B. F., and Shindler, D. B., “Impact of Crude Oil on PlanktonicFreshwater Ecosystems,” Proceedings of the Conference on Assess-ment of Ecological Impacts of Oil Spills, American Institute ofBiological Sciences, Arlingto
41、n, VA, 1978, pp. 712734.(15) Shindler, D. B., Scott, B. F., and Carlisle, D. B., “Effect of Crude Oilon Populations of Bacteria and Algae in Artificial Ponds Subject toWinter Weather and Ice Formation,” Verhlug International VereinLimnologie, Vol 19, No. 5, 1975, pp. 21382144.(16) Stanley, D. W., “P
42、roductivity of Epipelic Algae in Tundra Ponds anda Lake near Barrow, Alaska,” Ecology, Vol 57, No. 5, 1976, pp.10151024.(17) Bhattacharyya, S., Klerks, P. L., Nyman, J. A., “Toxicity to Fresh-water Organisms from Oils and Oil Spill Chemical Treatments inLaboratory Microcosms,” Environmental Pollutio
43、n, Vol 122, No. 2, 1April 2003, pp. 205215.(18) Klerks, P. L., Nyman, J. A., Bhattacharyya, S., “Relationship Be-tween Hydrocarbon Measurements and Toxicity to a Chironomid,Fish Larva and Daphnid for Oils and Oil Spill Chemical Treatmentsin Laboratory Freshwater Marsh Microcosms,” Environmental Pol-
44、lution, Vol 129, No. 3, June 2004, pp. 345353.(19) Mozley, S. C., and Butler, M. G., “Effects of Crude Oil on AquaticInsects of Tundra Ponds,” Arctic, Vol 31, No. 3, 1978, pp. 229240.(20) Blunden, D., Dale, M., Goudey, S., and Hoddinot, J.,“ The Effects ofOil Spill Chemicals on Shoreline Plants of N
45、orthern FreshwaterEcosystems,” Proceedings of the International Conference on Oiland Freshwater: Chemistry, Biology Technology, ed., J. H. Vander-meulen, Pergamon, pp. 403409.(21) Barsdate, R. J., “Ecologic Changes in an Arctic Tundra PondFollowing Exposure to Crude Oil,” (Abstract only), Proceeding
46、s ofthe Symposium on the Impact of Oil Resource Development onNorthern Plant Communities, 17 August 1972, Institute of ArcticBiology, University of Alaska, 1973, p. 52.(22) Barsdate, R. J., Alexander, V., and Benoit, R. E., “Natural Oil Seepsat Cape Simpson, Alaska: Aquatic Effects,” Proceedings of
47、theSymposium on Impact of Oil Resource Development on NorthernPlant Communities, 17 August 1972, Institute of Arctic Biology,University of Alaska, 1973, pp. 9195.(23) Goudey, J. S., Dale, M., and Hoddinot, J., “The Effects of Oil SpillChemicals on Transpiration, CO2Exchange and Cuticular Structurein
48、 Salix Interior,” Canadian Journal of Botany, Vol 63, No. 12, 1985,pp. 23402344.(24) Goudey, J. S., Dale, M., and Hoddinot, J., “Effects of Oil SpillChemicals on CO2Assimilation by the Fruticose Lichen CladinaMitis,” Freshwater Oilspill Research Project, (FOSRP) Report, EssoResources Canada Limited,
49、 Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 1986.(25) Goudey, J. S., Dale, M., and Hoddinot, J.,“ Effects of Crude Oil andChemically Treated Oil on Shoreline Plant Communities of NorthernBog Lakes,” FOSRP Report, Esso Resources Canada Limited,Calgary, Alberta, Canada, 1986.(26) Hutchinson, T. C., and Freedman, W., “Effects of Experimental CrudeOil Spills on Subarctic Boreal Forest Vegetation near Norman Wells,N.W.T., Canada,” Canadian Journal of Botany, Vol 56, No. 19, 1978,pp. 24242433.(27) Helebust, J. A., Hanna, B., Sheath, R. G., Gergis, M., and Hutchin-son, T. C., “Experime
