1、 Bi o rem ed at ion in Marine Oil Spills 2004 edition GUIDANCE DOCUMENT FOR DECISION MAKING AND IMPLEMENTATION OF BIOREMEDIATION IN MARINE OIL SPILLS INTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION London, 2004 Published in 2004 by the INTEXNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION 4 Albert Embankment, London SE 1 7SR Pri
2、nted in the United Kingdom by The Bath Press, Bath 2468 109753 1 ISBN 92-80 1-4187-2 IMO PUBLICATION Sales number: 1584E Copyright 0 International Maritime Organization 2004 Acknowledgements Pictures 1.3-1, 1.3-3, 1.3-4, 1.4-5 and 4.1-2 are reproduced by permission of DFO Canada. Pictures 1.3-2 and
3、1.4-2 are reproduced by permission of Environment Canada. Picture 1.3-5 is reproduced by permission of AEA Technology England. Pictures 1.3-6, 1.3-7, 1.4-1, 1.4-4, 3.3-1, 3.3-2, 3.3-3, 3.3-4, 4.1-1 and 4.2-1 are reproduced by permission of CEDRE. Picture 1.4-3 is reproduced by permission of TOTAL Fr
4、ance. Picture 2.4-1 is reproduced by permission of Indian Ocean Commission. Picture A3-1 is reproduced by permission of Musum national dhistoire naturelle, Paris, France. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by
5、 any means without prior permission in writing from the International Maritime organization. ii Contents Preface Chapter 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Chapter 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 Chapter 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 introduction to bioremediation What is bioremediation? Why use bioremediation? . Table 1:
6、 Pros and cons of bioremediation . How bioremediation works What are the main bioremediation strategies? Scope for application of bioremediation . Contingency planning Introduction Bioremediation within the overall shoreline clean-up response strate Selection of sites for bioremediation Mapping . Lo
7、gistics. identification of the requirements for the implementation of bioremediation Funding and claims . Training . Health and safety . Decision making Introduction When. where and how to use bioremediation . Guidance on the decision-making process . Decision process flowchart Table 2: Table 3: Sho
8、reline types and natural cleaning times Criteria for assessing oxygen limitation Conclusion on decision making Page 1 3 3 4 4 10 14 15 15 16 16 18 18 18 19 21 21 21 22 24 27 28 iii Bioremediation in Manne Oil Spills Chapter 4 Bioremediation guidelines implementation 4.1 Bioremediation treatment opti
9、ons. . Table 4: Guidelines for the application of bioremediation products for nutrient enrichment. . 4.2 Monitoring . Appendix 1 Measurement and analysis of hydrocarbons in manne sediments Appendix 2 Indicative biodegradability of some petroleum oil products Appendix 3 Assessing the biodegradation p
10、otential of an oil spill . Appendix 4 Estimation of sediment permeability. Appendix 5 Assessing oxygen content. . Appendix 6 Assessing nitrogen concentration . Appendix 7 Basic recommendations for the sampling plan 29 31 33 37 40 41 44 45 46 48 iv Preface Major incidents such as the Arnoco Cadiz (Fr
11、ance, 1978), the Exuon Valdez (USA, 1989), the Braer (UK, 1993), the Sea Empress (UK, 1996), the Erika (France, 1999) and the Prestige (Spain, 2002) have provided the stimulus for the development of alternative response techniques to tackle oil pollution both at sea and on the shoreline. One such te
12、chnique is bioremediation. Although recognized as a potential response option 30 years ago, it is receiving renewed attention as more environmentally acceptable clean-up methods are sought and as new claims of the potency of bioremediation are made. During the second International Oil Spill Research
13、 and Development Forum of the International Maritime Organ- ization (IMO) in 1995, bioremediation was identified as a topic warranting priority research to develop operational guidelines. An international working group chaired by Franois Merlin of Centre de documentation de recherche et dexprimentat
14、ions sur les pollutions accidentelles des eaux (CEDRE), France and Kenneth Lee, Fisheries and Oceans Canada was formed to address this issue. The public often sees bioremediation as the environmentally friendly response to an oil spill since it converts the oil into harmless products such as carbon
15、dioxide and water. Its potential has been demonstrated for a number of years, as it has been used successfully to enhance the natural degradation of oil in ex-situ methods as landfarming, composting and biopiling. The benefit of using bioremediation is dependent upon fulfilment of a number of specif
16、ic criteria. The scientific community is currently researching many of these criteria in order to understand more fully the processes involved and to improve the methods used. Given the prominence that bioremediation has gained in oil spill response, potential users need guidelines to help identi sc
17、enarios where this technique could be environmentally beneficial if implemented into local contingency plans. While there is little or no scientific evidence to show that careful application of bioremediation strategy has caused any harm to the environment, there is a need to be aware of situations
18、in which bioremediation would be unsuitable. With a view to providing responders with a set of practical guidelines, the 47th session of the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) of IMO decided that a guidance document for bioremediation use should be developed and published by IMO. France
19、agreed to act as the lead country through CEDRE. During a workshop of oil spill response experts and bioremediation specialists held in Brest, France, from 17 to 19 April 200 1, the first draft of the guidelines was prepared. This Working Group 1 Bioremediation in Marine Oil Spills completed a final
20、 draft document by the summer of 2001, and a short version was submitted and accepted for publication in the IMO Manual on Oil Pollution, as a chapter on bioremediation. The final draft documents for decision-making and implementation of bioremediation in marine oil spills submitted by France (MEPC
21、47/5/2 and MEPC 47/5/INF.9) were reviewed during the 47th session of MEPC by the OPRC Working Group. The Committee approved publication of the documents submitted. The aim of these guidelines is to provide users with clear criteria to enable them to evaluate the circumstances in which to consider th
22、e use of bioremediation for shoreline cleanup. These guidelines are not intended to address the treatment of waste generated at oil spills. They contain a summary of the most important bioremediation processes and decision- making criteria. The various strategies are discussed and some sugges- tions
23、 as to how to monitor the effectiveness and check for possible adverse consequences of the technique are made. Suggestions for further reading are also provided for readers who wish to study this subject in greater detail. The Marine Environment Protection Committee of IMO expressed its appreciation
24、 to: the Government of France and CEDRE for having taken the lead to host the workshop to formulate the guidelines; Working Group members who contributed to the preparation of the Guidance Document: m Anne Basseres TOTAL, France) David Bedborough (Consultant, United Kingdom) Kevin Colcomb (MCA, Unit
25、ed Kingdom) Darko Domovic (REMPEC, Malta) Michel Girin (CEDRE, France) Kenneth Lee (DFO - Fisheries and Albert Venosa (EPA, United States of America) Rebecca Hoff (NOAA, United States of America) Ezio Amato (ICRAM, Italy) Richard Santner (ITOPF, United Kingdom) Roger Prince (Exxon/Mobil, United Stat
26、es of America) David Fritz (BP Amoco, United States of America) External reviewers: 2 Chapter 1 Introduction to bioremediation 1.1 What is bioremediation? Bioremediation is the use of biological processes to accelerate the removal of contaminants from the environment In the above definition the appl
27、ication of bioremediation strategies is associated with the stimulation of pollutant biodegradation. Biodegrada- tion is based on metabolic processes by which micro-organisms, primarily bacteria, break down a wide range of organic contaminants, such as oil, that are susceptible to microbial degradat
28、ion. Enhanced ecosystem recovery is a consequence or goal of the practice of bioremediation. In these guidelines the term bioremediation includes those techniques used on site (e.g., biostimulation, bioaugmentation, phytoremediation, monitored natural attenuation, compostingJbiopiling) and the exten
29、sions to bioremediation that can be applied through combination with physical or chemical clean-up methods (surf-washing, surfactant addition). 1.2 Why use bioremediation? There is no single response technique that is suitable for all spill circumstances. Therefore, a contingency plan should include
30、 consider- ation of all current clean-up methods (see chapter 2). A principal advantage of bioremediation over more conventional physical and chemical methods is that it can result in the removal of the contaminant from an environment by the enhancement of natural biodegradation processes by convers
31、ion of contaminants to benign substances such as water and carbon dioxide. Furthermore, it can enhance the rate of habitat recovery, for example, by favouring plant growth in wetlands. As such, it is more likely to be acceptable to the public than the more invasive chemical or physical techniques. B
32、ioremediation, like all other methods, has advantages and disadvantages. Table 1 shows the pros and cons of using bioremediation in comparison with conventional response techniques. 3 Bioremediation in Marine Oil Spills Table 1 - Pros and cons of bwremediatwn Pros Oil-degrading micro-organisms are u
33、biquitous (present everywhere) and therefore bioremediation can be used on a range of shoreline types. There is evidence of successful bioremediation operations based on the addition of chemical additives (e.g. nutrients and oil dispersants) and/or habitat alterations (e.g. surf-washing and/ or tili
34、ng). Relatively non-intrusive method for final polishing. A natural process. I Does not generate large volumes of 1 secondary waste. Generally less labour-intensive and more cost-effective than traditional clean-up methods based on physical removal. Has received a positive public response. Cons Shor
35、eline bioremediation strategies based on nutrient enrichment will not work effectively at sea due to the extent of dilution that would occur in an open system. Not recommended for use for the removal of buk oil. Dependent on prevailing environmental conditions and the nature of the oil (i.e. limitat
36、ions on heavy fuel oils). May enhance dispersion of oil droplets. Takes longer than other physical/ chemical techniques. Some concerns remain in regards to potential adverse health effects associated with the release of bioremediation agents, particularl bioaugmentation products, and those resulting
37、 from the metabolic by-products of biodegradation. 1.3 How bioremediation works Micro-organisms metabolize (i.e. biodegrade) organic compounds for energy and a source of carbon for cell growth (i.e. production of biomass). Other elements, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, are required as well as carb
38、on for the synthesis of the molecules of life (e.g. proteins, enzymes, amino acids and lipids). Organic contaminants that are susceptible to biodegradation include oils (e.g. petrol, diesel, heating oil, crude oil, lubricants, and some fuel oils), Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs), oxygenated
39、 hydrocarbons (e.g. glycols, surfactants, detergents), 4 Chapter 1 - Introduction to bioremediation pesticides, BTEX components (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene), solvents, chlorinated solvents, amines, anilines, and even some explosives. Microbial metabolism of organic contaminants, includin
40、g oil, may follow different mechanisms according to the environmental conditions. For example, under aerobic conditions (i.e., in the presence of oxygen) many organic molecules are eventually converted to carbon dioxide, water and microbial cell mass (biomass) as illustrated by the following formula
41、: 1 kg HC“ + 2.6 kg O2 f 0.07 kg N + 0.007 kg P 1.6 kg CO2 + 1 kg H20 +1 kg biomass U HC“ = Hydrocarbon Under anaerobic conditions (i.e., in the absence of oxygen, biodegradation is usually much slower and therefore of less operational interest. 1.3-1: Bacteria at work DW Canada) 1.3.1 Mechanisms of
42、 biodegradation Biodegradation will occur, along with other weathering processes, immediately after the oil enters the environment. Petroleum hydrocarbons can be divided into four major classes (and subclasses) whose potential for biodegradation is highly variable. They can be listed in order of bio
43、degradability: 0 alkanes (or saturates) 0 aromatics, including Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) 5 Bioremediation in Marine Oil Spills o asphaltenes o resins or polar compounds Aikanes are degraded rapidly in the presence of oxygen by a wide range of micro-organisms. Alkanes can be subdivided
44、into normal paraffins (straight-chain compounds, n-alkanes), branched-chain saturates and cyclic saturates (or naphthenes or alicyclics). In general, the straight- or branched-chain saturates may be degraded relatively quickly and completely (degradation begins with straight-chained compounds) relat
45、ive to the cyclic compounds. Aromatics are compounds with one or more aromatic rings or benzene rings; they can also have substituents (e.g., benzenes, substituted benzenes, two-, three-, four- and even five-ringed PAHs. Although the rate of biodegradation of aromatic hydrocarbons is slower than for
46、 alkanes, relatively rapid degradation rates have also been observed in aerobic conditions. In general, light compounds (1 or 2 rings degrade quite well (and quickly), heavy compounds (with 5 or 6 rings) are highly resistant to degradation. In terms of ecological significance, the mechanism of biode
47、gradation is of interest since some aromatic compounds tend to be degraded into less toxic components. For asphaltenes and resins, biodegradation has been shown to be slow (and always incomplete) in comparison to the other hydrocarbon components in crude oil. Moreover, both asphaltenes and resins ma
48、y contain compounds that are the by-products of crude oil degradation. Although these chemicals make up a small proportion of petroleum products, they are extremely persistent. 1.3.2 Factors aflecting bioremediation The success of bioremediation is heavily influenced by the nature of the contaminate
49、d environment and the interactions between micro-organ- isms. As a biological process, factors such as extreme temperatures, low dissolved oxygen (DO) and low nutrient concentrations that impact micro- organism growth can limit bioremediation. Such factors should be taken into account in any decision-making process regarding the use of bioremediation, described in chapter 3. Temperature: Biodegradation rates are influenced by temperature. As a result, temperature is often a limiting factor to bioremediation in colder climates. Low temper
