1、MANUAL ONOIL POLLUTIONSECTION IV.COMBATING OIL SPILLSBINTERNATIONALMARITIMEORGANIZATIONLondon, 2005Published by theINTERNATIONAL MARITIME ORGANIZATION4 Albert Embankment, London SE1 7SR2nd edition, 2005Printed in the United Kingdom by the Bath Press, Bath24681097531ISBN 92-801-4177-5IMO PUBLICATIONS
2、ales number: IA569ECopyright # IMO 2005All rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced,stored in a retrieval system or transmittedin any form or by any means, electronic, electrostatic,magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,without prior permission in writing from the
3、International Maritime Organization.PrefaceThe Manual on Oil Pollution comprises six sections:Section I Prevention (out of print)Section II Contingency Planning (revised edition published 1995)Section III Salvage (revised edition published 1997)Section IV Combating Oil Spills (contained in this publ
4、ication)Section V Administrative Aspects of Oil Pollution Response(published 1998)Section VI IMO Guidelines for Sampling and Identificationof Oil Spills (published 1998)This edition of Section IV draws on the experience and lessons learned byGovernments and industry in responding to marine oil pollu
5、tion world-wide during the last thirty years. It builds on earlier editions, firstpublished in 1972 and revised in 1980 and 1988, and provides a clear andconcise overview of the present level of knowledge, expertise and under-standing in the field of oil spill response.It covers the behaviour and fa
6、te of different types of oil when spilled andthe effects on marine and coastal resources. Guidance is given on aerialsurveillance, the at-sea measures of containment and recovery and the useof chemical dispersants, and a new chapter has been included on in situburning. Shoreline clean-up strategies
7、and techniques, and waste manage-ment and disposal are described, and a new chapter has been added onbioremediation measures. In view of the growing awareness of thedifficulties inherent in dealing with spills of heavy fuel oil and emulsifiedfuels, a new, separate chapter has been devoted to the cur
8、rent state ofknowledge and experience in dealing with them. Guidance is provided ontraining, exercises and equipment maintenance and storage, and informa-tion is also given on liability, compensation and cost accounting.In 1990 the International Convention on Oil Pollution, Preparedness,Response and
9、 Co-operation was adopted by IMO. This Convention calls onContracting States, amongst other things, to co-operate and to exchangeinformation on matters related to response to oil pollution incidents. Thissection of the Manual provides useful information with regard to thepreparation of national and/
10、or regional systems for preparedness andresponse. The information is intended for Governments, particularly thoseof developing countries, and industry, on the most appropriate means ofdealing with marine oil spills. The information is intended for Govern-ments, particularly those of developing count
11、ries, and industry, on themost appropriate means of dealing with marine oil spills.iiiThe revision of this section of the Manual on Oil Pollution was undertakenby the Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Co-operation (OPRC)Working Group and approved by the Marine Environment ProtectionCommittee
12、(MEPC) of IMO. The MEPC wishes to express its appreciation tothe many experts who assisted in the preparation of the text and whocontributed photographs, illustrations and reference data, making thispublication available in its present form.ivManual on Oil Pollution IV: Combating Oil SpillsContentsP
13、ageChapter 1 Introduction . 1Chapter 2 Types of oil2.1 Crude oils. . 52.2 Petroleum products. . 6Chapter 3 Fate of oil spills in the marine environment3.1 Properties of oil . 93.2 Natural weathering processes acting on spilled oil . . 103.3 Movement of oil slicks . 183.4 Combined movement, weatherin
14、g processesand modelling 19Chapter 4 Effects of oil on marine and coastal resources4.1 Introduction 234.2 Ecological effects 244.3 Recreational beaches and sea areas 274.4 Ports and marinas. . . 284.5 Industrial installations. 304.6 Fish 304.7 Marine mammals . . . 344.8 Sea turtles . 354.9 Marine bi
15、rds . 364.10 Coral communities and ecosystems 374.11 Wetland communities and ecosystems. . . . 384.12 Nature reserves and marine parks . 40Chapter 5 Situation evaluation and response options5.1 Source identification and incident details . 415.2 Prevention or reduction of further spillages 415.3 Aeri
16、al surveillance, including remote sensing 425.4 Assessment of the threat . 475.5 Spill response options and their limitations 48vPageChapter 6 Containment and recovery of oil6.1 Introduction 516.2 Containment booms . 526.3 Recovery devices skimming equipment . . 716.4 Temporary storage . . 896.5 Int
17、egrated containment and recovery operations. . . . 906.6 Recovery of subsurface oil 946.7 Sorbents. . . 96Chapter 7 Chemical dispersion7.1 Introduction 1017.2 Dispersants 1067.3 Application techniques. 109Chapter 8 In situ burning8.1 Introduction 1198.2 Features of in situ burning 1208.3 Environment
18、al and health considerations . 1228.4 Safety considerations 123Chapter 9 Shoreline response9.1 Introduction 1259.2 Pre-spill contingency planning. . . 1279.3 Shoreline spill assessment 1309.4 Shoreline cleanup methods . 1319.5 Managing shoreline response . . . 1409.6 Site restoration . 1439.7 Care o
19、f wildlife 144Chapter 10 Bioremediation10.1 Introduction 14710.2 Degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons. . . 14710.3 Bioremediation techniques 14810.4 Opportunities for bioremediation 15110.5 Contingency planning 152Manual on Oil Pollution IV: Combating Oil SpillsviPageChapter 11 Management and dispo
20、sal of oil and oily debris11.1 Introduction 15511.2 Types of collected material 15611.3 On-site temporary storage and separationfor liquids and solids 15911.4 Land transport. . 16311.5 Waste treatment methods. 16411.6 Waste disposal methods 16511.7 Reclamation of oil . . . 16511.8 Stabilization of o
21、iled beach materials . 16711.9 Direct disposal 16811.10 Incineration 16911.11 Bioremediation . 17011.12 Dune disposal 171Chapter 12 Spills of heavy fuel oils featuresand countermeasures12.1 Introduction 17312.2 Characteristics of heavy fuel oils. 17312.3 Behaviour of heavy fuel oils when spilled. .
22、17412.4 Response strategies. . 176Chapter 13 Training, exercises, equipment maintenanceand storage13.1 Introduction 18113.2 Training . . . 18113.3 Exercises . . 18613.4 Equipment maintenance and storage . 188Chapter 14 Cleanup cost considerations14.1 Introduction 19314.2 Factors affecting response c
23、osts . 19314.3 Compensation for response costs 195Table of useful conversion factors . 199Bibliography 201viiContentsChapter 1IntroductionThe prevention of marine pollution is one of the most important objectivesof the International Maritime Organization (IMO) and considerablesuccess has been achiev
24、ed with the average amount of oil spilled eachyear having decreased more than ten-fold from the peak of the mid-1970s.IMO has been instrumental in reducing these discharges over the yearsthrough various international conventions, the most important being theInternational Convention for the Preventio
25、n of Pollution from Ships 1973,as modified by the Protocol of 1978 relating thereto (MARPOL 73/78). Thisimprovement in performance is demonstrated in the statistics ofaccidental oil spills world-wide from tankers, combined carriers andbarges (figure 1-1).02,0004,0006,0008,00010,00012,0001974 1976 19
26、78 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000020406080100120World Seaborne Oil Trade Numbers ofSpills 7 tonnes per yearWorld seaborne oiltrade(billion tonne-miles)Numbers of spills7 tonnesWorld seaborne oil trade Number of spills 7 tonnes per yearFigure 1-1 Comparison between the number
27、of spills 47 tonnesand world seaborne oil trade: 19742001 (Source: ITOPF)The incidence of accidental spills greater than 7 tonnes (50 barrels) hasdecreased substantially since 1974. As a result, the number of spills in1999 was less than one quarter of the number in 1974. The number ofspills has rema
28、ined low in recent years despite an upturn in seaborne oiltrade, which is now approaching the high levels of the mid 1970s .1A significant number of accidental tanker spills less than 7 tonnes(50 barrels) occur during loading and discharging operations (35%)(figure 1-2). For spills between 7 and 700
29、 tonnes (505,000 barrels),loading and discharging operations still remain a significant cause (29%),along with collisions (22%) and groundings (19%). However, for spillsgreater than 700 tonnes (5,000 barrels) the major causes are collisions(28%) and groundings (34%).MARPOL 73/78 has now been ratifie
30、d by most member countries of IMO.Besides limiting the overall amount of oil entering the sea, MARPOL 73/78requires that any discharges of oil are made in accordance with strictoperational procedures such that the oil does not form a persistent slickrequiring any cleanup response. In addition to ope
31、rational issues,MARPOL 73/78 also provides a framework for the design and constructionof oil tankers, which should contribute significantly to further reductionsin the occurrence of oil spills in the future.36286720155022428318347 7132172815120510152025303540ContributionofeachCause(%)Loading /Discha
32、rgingBunkering OtherOperationsCollisons Groundings Hull Failure Fires /ExplosionOther700 tonnesFigure 1-2 Accidental tanker spills and their causes: 19742001(Source: ITOPF)To supplement MARPOL 73/78, IMO has played a major role in reducingthe risk of oil spills from all ships by promoting greater sa
33、fety andoperating standards such as through the International Convention for theSafety of Life at Sea (SOLAS 1974), together with its associated Protocol of1978. More recent IMO initiatives include the International SafetyManagement Code (ISM Code) to ensure safety at sea, prevention ofhuman injury
34、or loss of life and avoidance of damage to the environment,in particular, to the marine environment.Manual on Oil Pollution IV: Combating Oil Spills2Despite the improvements that have already been achieved, oil spills willcontinue to occur. They can have a serious impact on coastal activities andtho
35、se who use or benefit from the resources of the sea. In most cases, suchdamage is temporary and caused primarily by the physical properties of oilcreating a nuisance and hazardous conditions. However in somesituations many years may be required for recovery to take place and onrare occasions, the da
36、mage may be irreparable. The impact on marine lifeis compounded by toxicity and tainting effects resulting from chemicalcomposition of the oil, as well as by the diversity and variability ofbiological systems and their sensitivity to oil pollution. However damage tothe environment can be minimized i
37、f correct counter measures are takenpromptly.This section of the Manual on Oil Pollution is intended to provide anoverview of the practical response measures that are available to deal withsuch oil spills. During the time since first publication in the 1970s, therehave been a number of developments,
38、 particularly with regard to oilcontainment booms and recovery techniques, oil dispersant chemicals,bioremediation, in situ burning, waste management and disposal. Thevariety of different types of oil being transported around the world has alsoincreased and more recently there has been a growing rec
39、ognition of theparticular difficulties posed by spills of heavy oils such as ships bunkers.While this section of the Manual has been generally developed to deal withship source spills, many of the issues and features presented can also beapplied to oil spills from other marine sources such as offsho
40、reinstallations.As with previous editions, this revised Manual on Oil Pollution is not anexhaustive treatment of the subject of marine oil spill response. Rather, itspurpose is to provide a clear and concise overview of the response optionsavailable, their main features and the key issues involved.
41、This will assistthose persons in Government and industry charged with the response tomarine oil spills, in the selection of the most appropriate cleanupmeasures for a particular situation. A bibliography is also provided inthis Manual as a guide to relevant sources of further and more detailedinform
42、ation and reference.Chapter 1 Introduction3Chapter 2Types of oil2.1 Crude oilsCrude oils are complex mixtures of hydrocarbons of varying molecularweight and structure comprising the three main chemical groups:paraffinic, naphthenic and aromatic. These hydrocarbons range fromsimple, highly volatile s
43、ubstances to complex waxes and asphalticcompounds which cannot be distilled. Oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, vana-dium, nickel, mineral salts, etc. may be present in various combinations.The characteristics of most crude oils fall within the following ranges:Table 2-1 Range of characteristics of crude oi
44、lsSpecific gravity, kg/m3at 15/158C800 to 980Initial boiling point,8C 30 to 125Kinematic viscosity, cSt, at 408C 3 to 100 (but can be as muchas 20,000)Pour point 8C 30 to +25 (but can be lower, oras high as 40)Flashpoint, (Abel) 8C 18 to 190Sulphur, % wt. 0.08 to 5Wax, % wt. up to 15Asphaltenes, % w
45、t. up to 5Vanadium, ppm V 5 to 170The names of crude oils are often associated with or have been derivedfrom their geographical source, e.g. Alaska North Slope Crude. Each crudeoil has unique physical and chemical properties and these can vary bothbetween oils from the same area and between differen
46、t regions of theworld. Their physical properties and how they behave when spilled,together with their chemical properties, which determine their toxicity, areimportant factors influencing the oil spill response and the effect they canhave on various marine resources.Lighter, more volatile crude oils
47、 tend to be highly fluid and spread rapidly,have a strong odour, a high evaporation rate and are usually flammable.They penetrate porous substrates, but do not tend to adhere to hardsurfaces. They may be highly toxic to humans, fish and other biota.Heavier, less volatile crude oils have a variety of
48、 characteristics dependingon their specific properties; these are described in more detail in chapter 3.They are fluid to varying degrees, have a range of evaporation rates andmay be flammable. As temperature increases, their tendency to penetrateporous substrates can increase, but the more viscous
49、and sticky crude oilsdo not penetrate readily. They adhere to hard surfaces but may be removed5using a variety of techniques; described in chapter 9. With lower volatility,toxicity is also lower, but some biota can be affected by physicalsmothering. Some of the heavier crude oils are solid at ambient temper-atures and they are relatively non-toxic and do not penetrate poroussurfaces. When heated they may melt and form a coating on hard surfaces,which can sometimes be difficult to remove.2.2 Petroleum productsThe products derived from refining crude oils have chemical and ph
