1、 STD-ITU-R HDBK IIE-ENGL 1978 4855232 0540739 293 THE RADIOCOMMUNICATION SECTOR OF THE ITU The role of the Radiocommunication Sector is to ensure the rational, equitable, efficient and economical use of the radio-frequency spectrum by ail radiocommunication services, including satellite services and
2、 carry out studies without limit of frequency range on the basis of which Recommendations are adopted. The regulatofy and policy functions of the Radiocommunication Sector are performed by World and Regional Radiocommunication Conferences and Radiocommunication Assemblies supported by Study Groups.
3、Contact address for inquiries about radiocommunication matters: ITU Radiocommunication Bureau Place des Nations CH-1211 Geneva 20 Switzerland Telephone +41227305800 Fax +41227305785 Internet brmailitu.int X.400 S=brrnail; P=itu; A=400net; C-ch Contact address for orders of ITU publications: ITU Sale
4、s and Marketing Service Place des Nations CH-1211 Geneva20 Switzerland Telephone 4-41 22 730 6141 English Telephone +41 22 730 6142 French Telephone +4122 730 6143 Spanish Fax +41227305194 Telex 421 O00 uit ck Telegram ITU GENEVE Internet sales itu.int X.400 S=sales; P=itu; A=400net; =eh O ITU 1998
5、All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or utilised in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and microfilm, without written permission from the ITU. STD-ITU-R HDBK IIE-ENGL 1978 4855232 0540720 TU5 II INTERNATIONAL TELECOMMUNICATION UNI
6、ON HANDBOOK THE IONOSPHERE AND ITS EFFECTS ON RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION A guide with background to ITU-R procedures for radioplanners and users 1998 Radiocommunication Bureau STD*ITU-R HDBK IIE-ENGL 1998 I 4855232 0540721 943 111 . . 111 . CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 . INTRODUCTION 1.1 RELATIONSHIP OF THIS HANDB
7、OOK TO ITU-R RECOMMENDATIONS 1.2 APPLICATION OF THE HANDBOOK . CHAPTER 2 . IONOSPHERIC PROPERTIES . 2.1 THE IONOSPHERE . 2.2 IONOSPHERIC PROFILES AND STRUCTURAL FEATURES 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4 2.2.5 2.2.6 2.2.7 Physical processes of the ionosphere . 2.2.1.1 Ionization production and loss . 2.2.1.2
8、Electron collision frequency D region (50-90 km) E region (90- 130 km) . Sporadic E (Es) 2.2.4.1 Mid-latitude Es . 2.2.4.2 Equatorial Es 2.2.4.3 Auroral Es F region (130-500 km) . Topside ionosphere F region irregularities (Spread F) . 2.3 GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES 2.3.1 Ionospheric control points 2.3.2
9、 High latitudes . 2.3.2.1 Relationship to magnetic and solar activity . 2.3.2.2 The auroral oval . 2.3.2.3 The outer precipitation zone 2.3.2.4 Storms and substorms 2.3.2.5 Ionization increases after geomagnetic storms (the post-storm effect) . Page 1 1 1 3 3 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 7 7 8 8 8 10 10 13
10、 14 14 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.3 -2.6 Polar cap events . 2.3.2.7 High-latitude trough . 2.3.2.8 High latitude irregularities . 2.3 -2.9 High-latitude F region 2.3.3 Mid-latitudes 2.3.4 Equatorial latitudes 2.3.4.1 Equatorial anomaly 2.3.4.2 Equatorial irregularities . SOLAR CYCLE EFFECTS ON PROPAGATION . 2.4.
11、1 Solar cycle 2.4.2 Annd cycle 2.4.3 Diurnal cycle MODELLING OF IONOSPHERIC PROPERTIES 2.5.1 Empirical models . 2.5.2 Physical models . 2.5.3 Hybrid models . IONOSPHERIC VARIABILITY AND DISTURBANCES 2.6.1 Solar-induced disturbances 2.6.1.1 Ionospheric storms . 2.6.1.2 Sudden ionospheric disturbances
12、 (SIDs) . Disturbances of atmospheric origin . 2.6.2 2.6.2.1 Winter variability of D-region ionization 2.6.2.2 Travelling ionospheric disturbances (TIDs) . References for Chapter 2 Bibliography CHAPTER 3 - IONOSPHERIC PROPAGATION 3.1 WAVEGUIDE PROPAGATION . 3.2 SKY-WAVE PROPAGATION 3.3 TRANS-IONOSPH
13、ERIC PROPAGATION Bibliography Page 15 15 16 16 16 17 17 19 20 20 20 20 20 20 21 22 22 22 24 24 25 25 25 26 28 29 30 30 31 31 STD-ITU-R HDBK IIE-ENGL 1998 4855232 0540723 734 -v- Page CHAPTER 4 . PROPAGATION AT VERY LOW FREQUENCIES BELOW ABOUT 500 kHz 4.1 ELF. VLF AND LF PROPAGATION . 4.2 PROPAGATION
14、 CHARACTERISTICS . The waveguide mode propagation of VLF waves to great distances . Normal diurnal variations of phase and amplitude at middle and low latitudes 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 Phase stability 4.2.4 Fading ofthe waves . 4.2 -4.1 Daytime fading Variations during ionospheric disturbances . X-ray eve
15、nts . 4.2.4.2 Night-time fading . 4.2.5 4.2.5.1 Sudden ionospheric Disturbance (SIDs) associated with solar 4.2.6 High latitudes . 4.3 CALCULATING FIELD STRENGTH: EARLY APPROACHES . 4.4 ITU-R METHOD OF CALCULATING FIELD STRENGTH AT VLF AND LF 4.4.1 The Wave-Hop method 4.4.2 The Waveguide Mode method
16、 . 4.5 RELIABILITY OF THE WAVE-HOP METHOD References for Chapter 4 CHAPTER 5 . PROPAGATION AT FREQUENCIES BETWEEN 150 HZ AND 1 700 5.1 FIELD STRENGTH MEASUREMENTS AND ANALYSIS . 5.1.1 Field strengths at distances of less than 300 km 5.1.2 Field strengths at distances between 300 and 3 500 km 5.1.2.1
17、 Region 1 . 5.1.2.2 Region 2 . 5.1.2.3 Region 3 . Field strengths at distances greater than 3 500 km 5.1.3 33 33 34 34 35 36 38 38 38 39 39 40 40 43 44 44 44 46 49 49 49 49 49 50 50 50 STD-ITU-R HDBK IIE-ENGL 1998 4855232 0540724 bSO - vi - Page 5.2 VARIATIONS OF FIELD STRENGTHS AND FACTORS AFFECTIN
18、G 50 PROPAGATION 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 5.2.6 5.2.7 5.2.8 Fading rate Amplitude distribution . Diurnal vanations . Vanation with season . 5.2.4.1 LF band 5.2.4.2 MF band . Variation with solar and magnetic activity Influence ofthe ground on radiation towards the ionosphere Excess polarization
19、 coupling loss, L, Field strengths exceeded for different percentages of time 50 50 51 51 51 51 53 53 56 58 5.3 DISCUSSION ON PREDICTION METHODS . 59 59 60 5.3.2.1 Region 1 60 5.3.2.2 Region 2 . 60 5.3.2.3 Asia 60 5.3.3 Comparison of prediction meuio 61 5.3.3.1 The Cairo North-South curve. 61 61 5.3
20、.3.2 Region 2 method 61 5.3.3.3 Recommendation ITU-R P. 1 147 5.3.3.4 Modified FCC method . 62 5.4 LF/MF SKYWAVE PROPAGATION AT DAYTIME . 62 5.3.1 5.3.2 Skywave prediction methods in use at LF and MF Comparison of predicted field strengths with measured data . 5.4.1 Seasonal variation 62 5.4.2 Effec
21、ts of latitude . 62 5.4.3 Effects of solar activity 62 5.4.4 Statistical distribution of field strengths 62 5.4.5 Daytime sky-wave field strength and interference levels 63 5.4.5.1 MF annual median value 63 63 5 -4.5.2 5.4.5.3 MF top-percentile value . 63 5.4.5.4 LF cases 63 MF upper decile value .
22、References for Chapter . 64 STD-ITU-R HDBK IIE-ENGL $798 W Li855212 0540725 597 . vii . Page CHAPTER 6 . HF PROPAGATION . 6.1 HF CIRCUIT DESIGN . 6.2 REQUIREMENT FOR PREDICTIONS 6.3 DEVELOPMENT OF PREDICTION TECHNIQUES 6.4 NOISE AND INTERFERENCE 6.5 VARIATIONS OF FIELD STRENGTH AND PROPAGATION FEATU
23、RES 6.5.1 HF signal characteristics . multipath . 6.5.1.1 Time delay . 6.5.1.2 Amplitude fading . 6.5.2 Absorption 6.5.3 Fading 6.5.3.1 Causes of fading . 6.5.3.2 Characteristics of amplitude fading . 6.5.3.3 Fading allowances for service planning . 6.5.4 Regional anomalies Features of fading encoun
24、tered in the Tropical Zone 6.5.4.1 6.5.4.2 High latitude effects . 6.6 RELIABILITY OF HF RADIO SYSTEMS . 6.6.1 Basic circuit. reception and service reliability (BCR, BRR. BSR) 6.6.2 6.6.3 Basic path and communications reliabilities (BPR, R) 6.6.4 Computation of compatibility Overall circuit. recepti
25、on and service reliability (OCR. ORR. OSR) 6.7 SERVICE NEEDS 6.8 THE HF RADIO SKY-WAVE PROPAGATION MODEL 6.8.1 Pathlengthsupto7000km . 6.8.1.1 Monthly median path basic MUF and operational MUF . 6.8.1.2 E-layer basic MUF . 6.8.1.4 Oblique ray paths . 6.8.1.3 F2-layer basic MUF . 6.8.1.5 Field streng
26、th . 6.8.1.6 Transmission losses . 67 67 68 68 69 70 70 71 71 72 72 72 73 74 75 75 76 77 77 77 78 78 78 79 79 79 80 80 81 82 82 STD=ITU-R HDBK IIE-ENGL 1798 4855232 0540726 423 . . v111 . Page 6.8.1 -7 Median available receiver power . 6.8.2 Path lengths beyond 9 O00 km . 6.8.2.1 Introduction 6.8.2.
27、2 Monthly median path basic MUF 6.8.2.3 Field strength . Median available receiver power . 6.8.4 System performance parameters 6.8.2.4 Paths between 7 O00 and 9 O00 km 6.8.3 6.9 ANTENNA CONSIDERATIONS . 6.9.1 Antenna characteristics 6.9.2 Gain 6.9.3 Radiation pattern 6.9.4 Polarization 6.9.5 Ground
28、effects 6.9.6 Radiated power 6.10 APPLICATION OF PREDICTION TO HF SYSTEM PLANNING AND DESIGN 6.1 1 OPERATIONAL CONSTRAINTS 6.1 1.1 Available frequencies (bands) 6.1 1.2 Interference 6.1 1.3 Digital systems . 6.1 1.3.1 Signal-to-noise ratio . 6.1 1.3.2 Time dispersion 6.1 1.3.3 Frequency dispersion .
29、 SELECTION OF SYSTEM PARAMETERS 6.12 6.12.1 Selection of fiequencies . 6.12.2 Selection of antennas . 6.12.3 Selection of transmitter power . 6.12.4 Location of terminals . 6.13 OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER PROGRAMS . References and Bibliography for Chapter 6 . 82 83 83 83 83 83 83 83 84 84 84 85 86 86 86 8
30、7 87 87 92 96 97 98 100 102 102 103 108 109 111 119 STD-ITU-R HDBK IIE-ENGL 1998 48552LZ 0540727 3bT . ix- CHAPTER 7 . 7PROPAGATION AT VHF AND ABOVE . EARTH-SPACE . 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 EARTH-SPACE PROPAGATION TOTAL ELECTRON CONTENT (TEC) . EFFECTS DUE TO BACKGROUND IONIZATION . 7.3.1 Faraday rotatio
31、n . 7.3.2 Group delay 7.3.3 Dispersion 7.3.4 Doppler frequency shift . 7.3.5 Direction of arrival of the ray . 7.3.6 Absorption 7.3.6.1 Auroral absorption . 7.3.6.2 Polar cap absorption . EFFECTS DUE TO IONIZATION IRREGULAFUTIES 7.4.1 Scintillation effects 7.4.2 7.4.3 Scintillation models . Geograph
32、ic, seasonal and solar dependence SUMMARY References for Chapter 7 CHAPTER 8 . PROPAGATION AT VHF AND ABOVE . TERRESTRIAL . 8.1 IONIZED PROPAGATION AT VHF AND ABOVE . 8.1.1 8.1.2 8.1.3 8.1.4 8.1 -5 8.1.6 8.1.7 Normal F-region propagation at VHF Trans-equatorial propagation (TEP) Sporadic-E propagati
33、on Meteor-trail ionization . Auroral ionization Ionospheric scatter propagation . surnnlaly References for Chapter 8 Bibliography Page 121 121 121 121 121 122 124 125 125 125 126 126 127 126 128 129 131 132 135 135 135 135 136 136 141 141 141 143 143 STD-ITU-R HDBK PIE-ENGL 1998 9 4855212 0540728 2T
34、b IPI -x- CHAPTER 9 . GLOSSARY 9.1 IONOSPHERE AND WAVES . 9.2 SIGNALS. NOISE AND INTERFERENCE 9.3 ANTENNAS AND RADIATION 9.4 RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION . 9.5 FADJNG AND LOSS . 9.6 RELIABILITY AND COMPATIBILITY Page 145 145 147 148 149 151 152 STDaITU-R HDBK IIE-ENGL 1998 4855212 0540729 132 = - xi - PREF
35、ACE This Handbook has been developed by experts of Working Party 3L (HF propagation) of the ITU-R Study Group 3 (Radiowave propagation), under the Chairmanships of Mr. P. A. Bradley (U.K.) and Dr R. Hanbaba (France), and edited by Dr D. G. Cole (Australia). Major contributors to the Handbook were: P
36、rof. Dr. Mr. Dr. Mr. Mr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Dr. Mr. Dr. Prof. Mr. Dr. Les Barclay Jack Belrose Peter Bradley David Cole Ian Davey Mike Dick Rudi Hanbaba Juergen Hortenbach Kevin Hughes Patrick Lassudrie-Duchesne Tadahiko Ogawa Don Ross Haim Soicher Noboru Wakai John Wang Bruce Ward STDmITU-R HDBK IIE-E
37、NGL 1998 4855232 0540730 954 -1- CHAPTER i INTRODUCTION 1.1 This Handbook on ionospheric properties and propagation supplies background and supplementary information on radiowave propagation effects, and serves as a companion volume and guide to the Recommendations that are maintained by Study Group
38、 3 (SG 3) (Radiowave Propagation) of the International Telecommunication Union, Radiocommunication Sector TU-R), to assist in the design of radio communication systems. This Handbook is intended to be used in conjunction with the published SG 3 Recommendations to assist the user in the application o
39、f the Recommendations. The Recommendations, listed below, contain the ionospheric radio propagation prediction methods and engineering advice for the fixed, broadcasting, satellite and mobile (maritime, land and aeronautical) services in the VLF/LF/MF/HF and VHF/“F bands. A glossary of terms is prov
40、ided at the end of the Handbook. Relationship of this Handbook to ITU-R Recommendations ITU-R P.684-1: ITU-R P. 1 147: Prediction of field strength at frequencies below about 500 kHz Prediction of *-wave field strength at fkquencies between about 150 and 1 700 kHz ITU-R P.533-5: ITU-R P.53 1-4: HF p
41、ropagation prediction method Ionospheric propagation data and prediction methods required for the design of satellite services and systems This Handbook follows the order of the above Recommendations. Duplication of propagation data from the Recommendations is intentionally minimal, and the detailed
42、 prediction methods are found in the Recommendations. Where applicable, reference is made in the text to ITU-R Recommendations and Reports simply by their numbers, e.g. Recommendation P.533. The latest version of the Recommendations (e.g. 533-5) should be used for system calculations. 1.2 Applicatio
43、n of the Handbook Accurate propagation information is required to support the design, implementation and operation of most modern communication systems. The propagation behaviour of radiowaves, in and through the ionosphere or upon reflection fiom the Earths surface, is of concern to radiocommunicat
44、ion systems that use the ionospheric propagation channel for the transmission of electromagnetic energy between antennas in the system. Signal degradation that occurs with sufficient fiequency and intensity to affect the performance and availability objectives must be estimated and accounted for in
45、the system design. Methods are thus required to predict the magnitude and occurrence of relevant propagation characteristics with sufficient accuracy for engineering applications. STDmITU-R HDBK IIE-ENGL 1778 4855232 0540733 890 -2- The Handbook provides background on the physical causes for the var
46、iations in propagation and path impairments, the bases for the prediction methods that are found in the Recommendations, and additional information deemed useful for engineering applications, including data and models that are yet inadequate for ITU-R Recommendation status. As far as possible, the p
47、rediction methods are evaluated by testing with measured data fiom the data banks of SG 3, and the results are used to indicate the accuracy of the prediction methods and the variability of the measured data. This Handbook addresses propagation characteristics for systems operating from about 3 O kH
48、z to above 10 GHZ, this including the VLF, LF, MF, HF, and trans-ionospheric satellite frequency bands. The effect of particular ionospheric conditions on an ionospheric or trans-ionospheric telecommunication system depends on wave fiequency and polarization; path geometry (e.g., elevation angle of
49、the path); the system performance objectives; achievable performance margins; details of the system configuration; and local ionospheric features. STD-ITU-R HDBK IIE-ENGL 3998 W 4855232 0540732 727 -3- CHAPTER 2 IONOSPHERIC PROPERTIES 2.1 The ionosphere The ionized region in the Earths atmosphere extending from about 50 km to roughly 2 O00 km above the surface is called the ionosphere; above that it is called the magnetosphere. For reasons related to the historical development of ionosphere research, the ionosphere is divid
