1、 I n t e r n a t i o n a l T e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n U n i o n ITU-T Series L TELECOMMUNICATION STANDARDIZATION SECTOR OF ITU Supplement 15 (10/2015) SERIES L: ENVIRONMENT AND ICTS, CLIMATE CHANGE, E-WASTE, ENERGY EFFICIENCY; CONSTRUCTION, INSTALLATION AND PROTECTION OF CABLES AND OTHER ELEM
2、ENTS OF OUTSIDE PLANT ITU-T L.1500 series Requirements for water sensing and early warning systems ITU-T L-series Recommendations Supplement 15 L series Supplement 15 (10/2015) i Supplement 15 to ITU-T L-series Recommendations Supplement to ITU-T L.1500 series Requirements for water sensing and earl
3、y warning systems Summary Supplement 15 to ITU-T L-series Recommendations provides a general overview of the requirements for water sensing and early warning systems. This Supplement illustrates the different technologies for sensing water quality indicators, in addition to early warning systems. Th
4、e Supplement also demonstrates the most commonly measured water parameters and associated sensing technologies. History Edition Recommendation Approval Study Group Unique ID* 1.0 ITU-T L Suppl. 15 2015-10-23 5 11.1002/1000/12691 * To access the Recommendation, type the URL http:/handle.itu.int/ in t
5、he address field of your web browser, followed by the Recommendations unique ID. For example, http:/handle.itu.int/11.1002/1000/11830-en. ii L series Supplement 15 (10/2015) FOREWORD The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is the United Nations specialized agency in the field of telecommunic
6、ations, information and communication technologies (ICTs). The ITU Telecommunication Standardization Sector (ITU-T) is a permanent organ of ITU. ITU-T is responsible for studying technical, operating and tariff questions and issuing Recommendations on them with a view to standardizing telecommunicat
7、ions on a worldwide basis. The World Telecommunication Standardization Assembly (WTSA), which meets every four years, establishes the topics for study by the ITU-T study groups which, in turn, produce Recommendations on these topics. The approval of ITU-T Recommendations is covered by the procedure
8、laid down in WTSA Resolution 1. In some areas of information technology which fall within ITU-Ts purview, the necessary standards are prepared on a collaborative basis with ISO and IEC. NOTE In this publication, the expression “Administration“ is used for conciseness to indicate both a telecommunica
9、tion administration and a recognized operating agency. Compliance with this publication is voluntary. However, the publication may contain certain mandatory provisions (to ensure, e.g., interoperability or applicability) and compliance with the publication is achieved when all of these mandatory pro
10、visions are met. The words “shall“ or some other obligatory language such as “must“ and the negative equivalents are used to express requirements. The use of such words does not suggest that compliance with the publication is required of any party. INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTSITU draws attention to
11、the possibility that the practice or implementation of this publication may involve the use of a claimed Intellectual Property Right. ITU takes no position concerning the evidence, validity or applicability of claimed Intellectual Property Rights, whether asserted by ITU members or others outside of
12、 the publication development process. As of the date of approval of this publication, ITU had not received notice of intellectual property, protected by patents, which may be required to implement this publication. However, implementers are cautioned that this may not represent the latest informatio
13、n and are therefore strongly urged to consult the TSB patent database at http:/www.itu.int/ITU-T/ipr/. ITU 2016 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, by any means whatsoever, without the prior written permission of ITU. L series Supplement 15 (10/2015) iii Table of Cont
14、ents Page 1 Introduction . 1 2 Scope . 1 3 Abbreviations and acronyms 1 4 Overview . 2 4.1 Water quality parameters 2 4.2 Meters and sensors . 3 4.3 Water sensing and early warning system . 5 5 Current sensing technologies 6 5.1 Optical sensing technologies 6 5.2 Electrochemical sensing technologies
15、 8 5.3 Mass spectrometry for water micro-pollutants . 10 5.4 Sensors based on sound and electromagnetic field interaction 10 5.5 Further challenges and possible solutions in developing real-time water monitoring platform 12 6 Early warning systems 12 6.1 Predicting and decision making 13 6.2 Communi
16、cation of information 14 6.3 System policy . 15 7 Conclusions. 17 Bibliography. 18 L series Supplement 15 (10/2015) 1 Supplement 15 to ITU-T L-series Recommendations Supplement to ITU-T L.1500 series Requirements for water sensing and early warning systems 1 Introduction The increasing worldwide con
17、tamination of water sources with thousands of industrial and agricultural chemical compounds is one of the fundamental environmental challenges facing global societies. Almost 89% (6.1 billion people) of the total global population had access to an improved water source in 2010. However, approximate
18、ly 884 million people of the global population were still relying on unimproved drinking water sources. Provision of improved water sources in urban areas remained at 83% between 1990 and 2008. Furthermore, this is linked to over 35% of all deaths in developing countries. The World Health Organizati
19、on (WHO) cites waterborne illnesses as a major factor in 1.8 million deaths each year of which 88% are children in developing countries. Many water sources are polluted with microbiological organisms from the disposal of excreta, impairing human health through waterborne diseases such as diarrhoea,
20、cholera, trachoma, schistosomiasis and others. Water-related vector-borne diseases, such as malaria, are also a major health concern. Different water sources and aquatic systems that receive contamination from industrial waste and sewage treatment plants, storm water systems, and run-off from urban
21、and agricultural lands need to be assessed via reliable, accurate and effective techniques. The assessment system can provide early warnings with the obtained water quality data, thus necessary actions and proper control can be taken in time to protect the quality of water sources. It is very import
22、ant to supervise the quality of water resources through effective water sensing and early warning systems. 2 Scope Supplement provides a general overview of the requirements for water sensing and early warning systems. This Supplement illustrates the different technologies for sensing water quality
23、indicators, in addition to early warning systems. The Supplement also demonstrates the most commonly measured water parameters and associated sensing technologies. 3 Abbreviations and acronyms This Supplement uses the following abbreviations and acronyms: AHP Analytic Hierarchy Process BOD Biologica
24、l Oxygen Demand CAP Common Alerting Protocol COD Chemical Oxygen Demand ISO International Organization for Standardization ITS Intelligent Transport System KPI Key Performance Indicator LED Light-Emitting Diode MS Mass Spectrometry ORP Oxidation-Reduction Potential 2 L series Supplement 15 (10/2015)
25、 SSC Smart Sustainable Cities SWB Subjective Well-Being SWM Smart Water Management TEN Trans-European Network TN Total Nitrogen TOC Total Organic Carbon TP Total Phosphorus TR Technical Report TS Technical Specification TSS Total Suspended Solids TTC Telecommunication Technology Committee (TTC) of J
26、apan UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change UN-Habitat United Nations Human Settlements Programme UV-Vis UltraViolet-Visible WG Working Group XML Extensible Markup Language 4 Overview 4.1 Water quality parameters Water resources are con
27、stantly subject to ever increasing risks of pollution, thus water quality must be closely supervised to ensure that it responds fully to safety requirements associated with its different uses. A water system is very complicated and there are many parameters which influence water quality. These param
28、eters are the basis for water sensing as water quality indicators. Environmental water quality assessments are based on the analysis of the physical, chemical and bacteriological parameters of the water. Examples for the physical characteristics include temperature, conductivity and turbidity. Chemi
29、cal parameters are: pH, oxygen, alkalinity, nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, while bacteriological contaminants look for the abundance of certain biological taxa. Monitoring could also include tests for toxins and direct measurements of pollutants such as heavy metals or hydrocarbons. It has been
30、reported that in daily use there are up to 70000 known and emerging chemicals that might be present in various water resources, including for drinking water production. Notably, approximately 860 active compounds are currently formulated in pesticide products. The chemical and physical properties of
31、 these pesticides can differ significantly which deem them relevant to be detected by various analytical methods. For example, they might include heteroatoms such as halogens, phosphorous, sulphur or nitrogen. Quality indicators, especially in waste water include the biological oxygen demand (BOD),
32、chemical oxygen demand (COD), total organic carbon (TOC) and total suspended solids (TSS). Most natural waters contain small quantities of organic compounds. Aquatic microorganisms consume some of these organic compounds as food by oxidizing the organic compounds, thus releasing energy used further
33、for growth and reproduction. The problem is that these microorganisms microbial metabolisms consume dissolved oxygen in the water, which might L series Supplement 15 (10/2015) 3 threaten aquatic life if the rate of dissolved atmospheric oxygen does not compensate for the oxygen depletion process. Th
34、e BOD represents the amount of oxygen required for the microbial metabolism of the organic compounds in the water and is used as an indicator of the degree of organic contamination of water. The presence of nutrients (e.g., nitrates and phosphates) and heavy metals (e.g., lead) in water is a serious
35、 threat to human health. Phosphorus is widely used as an agricultural fertilizer and this can be found most notably in agricultural runoffs. It can also be found in domestic detergents. Phosphates can generally be grouped within three broad classes: orthophosphates, condensed phosphates (pyro-, meta
36、- and poly-) and organic phosphorus depending on the nature and source of the discharge. Phosphates in water cause eutrophication, a severe threat to marine life. Nitrate fertilizers on the other hand can have a threatening effect on human health since they can be reduced to nitrite by bacteria in t
37、he stomach and furthermore become incorporated into carcinogenic N- nitrosamine compounds. Heavy metals, on the other hand, such as zinc, lead, copper, mercury and nickel are common in the earths crust. Some, in trace amounts, are even essential to human health. However, due to natural erosion, runo
38、ff from industrial and other sources, and corrosion in water-bearing pipes, contaminate the water sources and water supplies to toxic levels. The most commonly used surface water quality parameters are shown in Table 1. These parameters are generally adopted by many countries or international associ
39、ations such as WHO, EU, US EPA and Chinese National Standard. Table 1 Most common water quality parameters for general designated use categories Physical parameters Conductivity, temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), TSS, turbidity, oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) Chemical parameters pH, BO
40、D, COD, dissolved oxygen, ammonia nitrogen, arsenic, chloride, cyanide, fluoride, nitrate, sulfate, total phosphorus (TP), total nitrogen (TN), aluminium, antimony, dadmium, chromium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, nickel, mercury, selenium, zinc, oil (extracted from petroleum ether), volatile pheno
41、l, benzo(a) pyrene, anionic surfactant, permanganate index, TOC Biological parameters Escherichia coli, coliform bacteria, EPT (ephemeroptera, plecoptera and trichoptera) index 4.2 Meters and sensors Meters and sensors are currently being intensively applied to regulate different activities of water
42、 distribution systems such as hydraulic pressure and flow, water quality, head losses, and water and energy consumptions. The major aim of water utilities is to convey water from one place to another effectively with a minimal compromise to its quality and quantity. Water quality sensors help to det
43、ect and address problems related to the quality of water before affecting consumers. Water quality monitoring inside the distribution or the network system helps in addressing problems and providing related operational management activities. An application of different water quality sensors provides
44、 verified information that leads to informed decisions related to the observed water quality change. An advanced water quality sensor measures the water pH, dissolved oxygen, temperature, turbidity, salinity, and conductivity. In May 2007, the European Parliament proposed increasing from 33 to 61 th
45、e toxic products covered by European legislation on water quality. Forty-five of these were classified as priority substances and should no longer be used by 2015. There is an acute need in high sensitive low cost on-line sensors that are able to detect the excess of pollutants established by the of
46、ficial water quality regulations. As an example, the EU pesticide standard is set at 0.1 micro grams/L. 4 L series Supplement 15 (10/2015) In order to detect multi-contaminants simultaneously, multi-parameter water quality sensor panels, are mainly used in finished water, i.e., in water which has be
47、en treated and is ready for consumption. The authors have demonstrated typical parameters and techniques used in these monitors along with the differences and limitations between the different sensing methodologies as shown in Tables 2 and 3 respectively. Table 2 Most commonly measured water paramet
48、ers and associated sensing technologies Parameter being measured Sensing technology Aluminium Colorimetry; atomic absorption spectrometry Antimony Atomic absorption spectrometry Ammonia Colorimetric (manual; Nesslers reagent; automated; Berthelot reaction); ion selective electrode Chlorine Colorimet
49、ric; membrane electrode; polarographic membrane; 3-electrode voltametric method Conductance Conductivity cell; annular ring electrode; nickel electrode; titanium or noble metal electrode Dissolved oxygen Membrane electrode; 3-electrode voltametric method; optical sensor Ions (Cl-, NO3-, NH4+) Ion-selective electrodes ORP Potentiometric; platinum or noble metal electrode pH Titration with sodium hydroxide; proton selective glass bulb electrode, proton selective metal oxide; ion sensitive field effect transistor (ISFET) Phosphates Manual or automated c
