1、SAE Technical Standards Board Rules provide that: “This report is published by SAE to advance the state of technical and engineering sciences. The use of this report is entirelyvoluntary, and its applicability and suitability for any particular use, including any patent infringement arising therefro
2、m, is the sole responsibility of the user.”SAE reviews each technical report at least every five years at which time it may be reaffirmed, revised, or cancelled. SAE invites your written comments and suggestions.Copyright 1999 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.All rights reserved. Printed in U.S.
3、A.QUESTIONS REGARDING THIS DOCUMENT: (724) 772-8510 FAX: (724) 776-0243TO PLACE A DOCUMENT ORDER: (724) 776-4970 FAX: (724) 776-0790SAE WEB ADDRESS: http:/www.sae.org400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001AEROSPACE INFORMATION REPORTAIR1467REV.BIssued 1978-09Reaffirmed 1994-09Revised 1999-
4、04Gas Energy Limited Starting SystemsFOREWORDChanges in this revision are format/editorial only.TABLE OF CONTENTS1. SCOPE .22. REFERENCES .23. SYSTEMS DESCRIPTION.33.1 Solid Propellant Cartridge Gas .33.1.1 Cartridge .43.1.2 Performance Characteristics.63.1.3 Starter Description 83.1.4 Applicable Sp
5、ecifications 93.2 Monopropellant Hydrazine Gas 123.2.1 Hydrazine143.2.2 Performance Characteristics.173.2.3 System Description .193.2.4 Applicable Specifications 233.3 Bipropellant Gas .243.3.1 Performance Characteristics.253.3.2 System Description .263.4 Stored Gas263.4.1 Compressed Stored Gas Syst
6、em263.4.2 Stored Cryogenic Nitrogen324. SYSTEM SELECTION40SAE AIR1467 Revision B- 2 -1. SCOPE:This SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) presents information on gas energy limited propulsion engine starting systems employed in commercial and military applications and remote industrial sites. The ty
7、pes of systems discussed utilize solid propellant cartridge gas, monopropellant hydrazine gas, bipropellant gas, compressed stored gas, and cryogenic stored nitrogen. Presented information conveys design features, performance capabilities and system limitations with methods of computing results.2. R
8、EFERENCES:1. Guide for Determining, Presenting, and Substantiating Turbine Engine Starting and Motoring Characteristics, SAE AIR713B, August 1985.2. Guide for Determining Engine Starter Drive Torque Requirements, SAE AIR781, September 1962.3. Bender, D. E., Dual Power Source for Cranking Diesel Engi
9、nes, SAE Paper 680617, September 1968.4. Pahl, D. A., Hydrazine APU Starter Development, Final Report March 1983, Rocket Research Company, AFAPL-TR-83-2039, June 1983.5. Asaoka, L. K. and Gotzmer, C.: Development of a Gas Generant for the Cartridge, Engine Starter, CJU-2/B, JANNAF Propulsion Meeting
10、 Proceedings, 1983.6. Yeager, Walter C.: Hydrazine Based Propellant Experience at AiResearch Manufacturing Company, SAE Paper 851973, October 1985.7. Scicchitano, E. V. and Bundas, E. J.: Design, Safety and Maintainability Aspects for Hydrazine Use in Emergency Secondary Power Systems, SAE Paper 851
11、972, October 1985.8. Anderson, Leroy and keller, Walter F.: F-20 Air Turbine Cartridge Start System, SAE Paper 841570, October 1984.9. Christensen, W. D. and Martone, J. A.: The F-16 Aircraft and Hydrazine - An Industrial Perspective, SAE Paper 851971, October 1985.10. Occupational Safety and Health
12、 Standards on Hydrazine, HQ, USAF Surgeon General AFOSH Std 161-13, 1979.11. Rodgers, Colin, Fast Start APU Technology, SAE Paper 861712, October 1986.SAE AIR1467 Revision B- 3 -2. (Continued):12. Gazzera, R. W., Advanced Pneumatic Start Systems for APUs, SAE Paper 861713, October 1986.13. Keller, W
13、. F., Selection of a Starting System for a Low Cost Single Engine Fighter Aircraft, AIAA Paper 82-1043, June 1982.3. SYSTEMS DESCRIPTION:3.1 Solid Propellant Cartridge Gas:Solid propellant cartridges were first used for starting the reciprocating engines of World War II military fighter aircraft. A
14、small cartridge, approximately the size of an 8-gauge shot gun shell, provided a short duration burst of energy sufficient to rotate the engine for a few revolutions. With the advent of the turbojet engine, a large increase in starting energy was required to rotate the engine for several thousand re
15、volutions.The British were the first to employ solid propellant cartridge starters for turbojet engines on the Hawker Sea Hawk and the English Electric Canberra. For these applications, the cartridge gas was expanded across a single stage turbine rotating the engine past the engine self-sustaining s
16、peed before the cartridge burned out. The first American cartridge starter was designed and developed for use on the Martin B-57, the American version of the Canberra. Cartridge starters were subsequently employed on numerous military aircraft including the F100, F101, F105, F106, F111, F4C, B-52,KC
17、-135, GAM77, and A3D.The cartridge starter is a self-sufficient unit which allows aircraft to be dispersed to remote areas where ground support equipment is not available. The cartridge starter provides a quick simultaneous engine start capability for aircraft on alert status. Since no ground suppor
18、t equipment must be disconnected, the aircraft is ready for takeoff immediately after completion of the start cycle.A disadvantage of cartridge start systems is the need for a special cartridge which results in a logistic and cost factor not present in most other types of start systems. To meet the
19、self-sufficiency requirement, it is necessary to carry extra cartridges aboard the aircraft so that if the aircraft lands at a remote base, there will be cartridges available to return the aircraft to its home base.Early cartridge starters were designed to operate with cartridge gas only. Later desi
20、gns operated either with cartridge gas or low pressure bleed air and are referred to as air turbine cartridge starters. The combination starter does not have to be operated in the cartridge mode for all starts. Whenever ground support equipment is available, the pneumatic mode can be utilized to ext
21、end the service life of the starter and reduce starting costs.SAE AIR1467 Revision B- 4 -3.1 (Continued):Starting a jet engine by direct impingement of high velocity cartridge gases on the jet engine turbine has been studied because of several advantages offered. An impingement start system could pr
22、ovide a significant weight savings by eliminating a starter turbine and gearbox. Impingement start systems, for large engines, have not been developed to date primarily due to the high temperature and corrosive properties of cartridge gas and their adverse effect on jet engine turbine blades.Vane mo
23、tors have also been used to convert cartridge gas energy to rotational power. Reference 3 describes an application to starting diesel engines; the approach has also been applied to gas turbines.The Air Force has funded development of a hot gas vane motor suitable in size to start jet fuel starters o
24、r APUs and capable of operation on gases generated by solid or liquid propellants (Reference 4).Disadvantages of solid propellant cartridge systems, which have resulted in no recent aircraft applications, are limited selection of existing cartridges, excessive smoke, excessive deposits (necessitatin
25、g frequent cleaning of the starter hardware), and poor resistance to temperature cycling. The latter can result in cracking of the propellant grain which leads to overpressurization or explosions or both. To sum up, future applications are most likely to be based on new propellant formulations tailo
26、red to the application. Applications are likely to be limited to starting jet fuel starters, auxiliary propulsion units and small un-manned aircraft engines. A potential user would do well to contact the agencies referenced herein prior to conducting extensive design studies; it is to be expected th
27、at on-going effort by Cartridge Manufacturers will reduce some of the disadvantages.3.1.1 Cartridge: The basic components of a typical solid propellant cartridge shown on Figure 1 are the solid propellant charge or grain, an inhibitor, an igniter assembly, the cartridge case and a particle screen. T
28、he inhibitor, which is bonded, taped or dip-dried onto the propellant, restricts the burning surface to achieve the desired burning characteristics. The particle screen restricts the passage of any pieces of unburned propellant from the cartridge case which could plug the turbine nozzles. The cartri
29、dge case is manufactured from a metallic or rubber material. A thin disc seal covering the particle screen prevents moisture from contacting the propellant and, hence, allows the cartridge to be stored in the starter cartridge breech in the “ready” position for a long duration. The seal ruptures and
30、 burns upon ignition of the cartridge. A circumferential seal around the outside of the cartridge case prevents hot cartridge gases from decomposing the cartridge case during a start cycle, thereby preventing a buildup of carbon on the breech walls. The seal also provides a gas-tight connection at t
31、he starter breech parting line.The igniter assembly is a pyrotechnic type consisting of an igniter case containing an igniter charge and an electrical wire surrounded by a small primer charge. The primer is heat sensitive, igniting readily when the wire is supplied with an electrical current. The ho
32、t flame from the igniter charge ignites the cartridge grain.SAE AIR1467 Revision B- 5 -FIGURE 1 - Basic Components-Air Force Type MXU-4/A Starter CartridgeSAE AIR1467 Revision B- 6 -3.1.1 (Continued):Safety precautions must be observed in the operation, handling and storage of cartridges. The storag
33、e temperature range and storage life of the cartridge must be adhered to, to prevent the possibility of propellant deterioration. Temperature cycling can result in differential expansion and cracking of the grain. Any crack in the grain increases the burning area, and therefore the mass flow, which
34、can lead to an overpressurization of the starter breech or an explosion or both.Existing qualified cartridges in the military inventory are the 4 lb grain MXU-129/A and the 8 lb grain MXU-4A/A; a smaller cartridge, designated the CJU-2/B by the Navy, is used to start an engine on an unmanned vehicle
35、 (Reference 5). The Naval Ordnance Station, Indian Head, MD, has been working to remedy the other listed disadvantages as have the Air Force Rocket Propulsion Lab, Edwards AFB, CA, and the cartridge vendors.The starting energy requirements of many of the current operational aircraft engines are eith
36、er too large or too small for the above cartridges. New cartridges for these applications would have to be developed. A possible candidate for small engines is the cartridge developed for automobile airbag passive restraint systems.3.1.2 Performance Characteristics: The linear burn rate (r), a major
37、 performance and design consideration, is the velocity at which the grain is consumed during operation. The burn rate is directly proportional to the cartridge operating or breech pressure (Pc) as follows:(Eq. 1)where a and n are constants. These constants, which are different for each type of prope
38、llant, can be obtained from cartridge ballistic characteristics published by various cartridge manufacturers.The burn characteristics of the cartridge propellants are such that they will burn approximately twice as fast with the cartridge at 160 F than when the cartridge is at -65 F. With a constant
39、 turbine nozzle area, the faster burn rate at 160 F will increase the breech pressure, which in turn increases the burn rate of the grain until a stabilized pressure is attained. Therefore, on a hot day when the starting energy requirement for an engine start is the smallest, the energy available at
40、 the turbine is the greatest.Some of the early cartridge starters utilized constant area nozzles, with the result that the starter torque on a hot day due to the higher flow rate and pressure was considerably higher than on a cold day. Later starter designs utilized a control valve which varies the
41、effective nozzle area as a function of pressure. On a hot day, the nozzle area is increased to lower the pressure and burn rate, so that the difference in burn time between a cold and hot cartridge is greatly reduced.raPcn=SAE AIR1467 Revision B- 7 -3.1.2 (Continued):The flow rate (w) of a cartridge
42、 grain is a function of exposed burning surface area (Ab), the density of the propellant (b), and the propellant linear burning rate (r), which is the velocity at which the propellant is consumed in a direction normal to the burning surface.(Eq. 2)There are three types of variations of burning area
43、with time: regressive, neutral and progressive. If the grain is so designed that the burning area and, therefore, the flow rate, increase with burning time, the grain has a progressive burning characteristic. The grain is regressive if the flow rate decreases with time and neutral if the flow rate r
44、emains constant with time. The MXU-129/A andMXU-4A/A cartridges have neutral grains.The energy available from a cartridge can be calculated in terms of gas horsepower (GHP) as follows:(Eq. 3)where,w = Flow rate, lbm/minHAD= Adiabatic head, ftThe adiabatic head can be expressed as follows:(Eq. 4)wher
45、e, = Specific heat ratioR = Gas constant, ft-lbf/lbm-RPc= Breech pressure, lbf/in2(absolute)Pe= Nozzle exit pressure, lbf/in2(absolute)T = Cartridge gas flame temperature, RwAbrb=GHPwHAD33 000-=HAD1- RT 11PcPe-1-=SAE AIR1467 Revision B- 8 -3.1.2 (Continued):For example, the performance characteristi
46、cs of a MXU-4A/A cartridge at 80 F are:Pc= 1000 lbf/in2(absolute)T = 2560 R = 1.27R = 79.7 ft-lbf/lbm-Rw = 30.6 lb/minAssuming an exhaust pressure of 14.7 lbf/in2(absolute), the adiabatic head (HAD) and gas horsepower (GHP) are:HAD= 568 400 ftGHP = 527.1 hpThe cartridge gas energy or gas horsepower
47、is converted to shaft horsepower at the starter output pad by the starter turbine. Due to aerodynamic losses in the turbine stage and mechanical losses in the gearbox, only a percentage of the gas horsepower at the inlet is converted to useful work. The overall starter efficiency is the measure of t
48、he amount of shaft horsepower the starter will provide at the starter output shaft utilizing the available gas horsepower at the starter inlet.The cartridge/pneumatic starter must be designed to operate as efficiently as possible with both high pressure, high temperature cartridge gas and low pressu
49、re, low temperature bleed air. An optimum turbine design for operation with low pressure bleed air would be a reaction type turbine with a converging nozzle cascade; whereas a turbine designed for maximum efficiency operating with cartridge gas would be an impulse type turbine with converging-diverging nozzles. A single turbine for both modes of operation, therefore, must be a compromise design based on the best efficiency for both energy sources.The gear ratio selected for a cartridge
