1、Lithium Ion Batteries in Electric Drive Vehicles Lithium Ion Batteries in Electric Drive Vehicles Pesaran Ahmad Pesaran Ahmad Pesaran PT-175 ISBN: 978-0-7680-8280-7 Lithium Ion Batteries in Electric Drive Vehicles Ahmad Pesaran This research focuses on the technical issues that are critical to the a
2、doption of high-energy-producing lithium Ion batteries. To achieve aggressive fuel economy standards, carmakers are developing technologies to reduce fuel consumption, including hybridization and electri cation. Cost and a ordability factors will be determined by these relevant technical issues whic
3、h will provide for the successful implementation of lithium ion batteries for application in future generations of electri ed vehicles. Performance requirements that are necessary to assure lithium ion technology as the battery format of choice for electri ed vehicles are presented in this book, inc
4、luding: Long calendar life (greater than 10 years) Su cient cycle life Reliable operation under hot and cold temperatures Safe performance under extreme conditions End-of-life recycling . Ahmad Pesaran Ahmad Pesaran manages the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Energy Storage Group, workin
5、g on high-energy anode materials, electrode coatings, battery thermal testing and analysis, lithium-ion three-dimensional electrochemical-thermal modeling, lithium-ion safety modeling and evaluation, plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) battery second use, and techno-economic analysis of batteries for ele
6、ctric vehicles. Ahmad leads the computer-aided engineering for Electric Vehicle (EV) Batteries Consortium, funded by the U.S. Department Energy. He is the recipient of numerous prestigious research and development awards and a contributing member of SAE International and the United States Advanced B
7、attery Consortium. SAE INTERNATIONAL AUTOMOTIVE P1611236_PT_175_cover.indd 1 5/9/16 9:29 AMLithium Ion Batteries in Electric Drive Vehicles PT-175.indb 1 4/28/16 3:47 PMOther SAE books of interest: Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicles Ronald K. Jurgen (Product Code: PT-143.SET) Electric and Hybrid
8、Electric Vehicles - Batteries Ronald K. Jurgen (Product Code: PT-143/2) Battery Reference Book T.R. Compton (Product Code: R-167) Future Automotive Fuels and Energy Bruce Morey (Product Code: T-128) For more information or to order a book, contact: SAE INTERNATIONAL 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale
9、, PA 15096 Phone: +1.877.606.7323 (U.S. and Canada only) or +1.724.776.4970 (outside U.S. and Canada) Fax: +1.724.776.0790 Email: CustomerServicesae.org Website: books.sae.org PT-175.indb 2 4/28/16 3:47 PMLithium Ion Batteries in Electric Drive Vehicles Edited By Ahmad Pesaran Warrendale, Pennsylvan
10、ia, USA PT-175.indb 3 4/28/16 3:47 PM Copyright 2016 SAE International eISBN: 978-0-7680-8331-6 Copyright 2016 SAE International. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, distributed, or transmitted, in any form or by any means without the pri
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16、 +1.724.776.0790 PT-175.indb 4 4/28/16 3:47 PMTable of Contents Introduction . 1 Newly Developed Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Technology for a Mass-Market Electric Vehicle (2013-01-1543) . 5 Yukiko Kinoshita, Toshiro Hirai, Yasuharu Watanabe, Yasuo Yamazaki, Ryuichi Amagai, Keisuke Sato, Nissan Motor Co
17、., Ltd. High-Voltage Battery System Concepts for ISO 26262 Compliance (2013-01-0181) 13 William Taylor, Jody J. Nelson, kVA Li-Ion Battery SOC Estimation Using Non-Linear Estimation Strategies Based On Equivalent Circuit Model (2014-01-1849) 23 Mohammed Farag, McMaster University; Matthias Fleckenst
18、ein, BMW AG; Saeid R. Habibi, McMaster University Development of Battery Hardware-In-the-Loop System Implemented with Reduced-Order Electrochemistry Li-Ion Battery Models (2014-01-1858) 35 Tae-Kyung Lee, Ghamdan Kaid, John Blankenship, Dyche Anderson, Ford Motor Co. Effect of Electrode Tabs Configur
19、ation on the Electric-Thermal Behavior of a Li-Ion Battery (2014-01-1862) 43 Jiangong Zhu, Zechang Sun, Xuezhe Wei, Haifeng Dai, Tongi University; Hongzhang Cen Thermal Behavior of Two Commercial Li-Ion Batteries for Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (2014-01-1840) 51 Ehsan Samadani, Leo Gimenez, and
20、 William Scott, University of Waterloo; Siamak Farhad, University of Akron; Michael Fowler and Roydon Fraser, University of Waterloo Accelerated Life Test Methodology for Li-Ion Batteries in Automotive Applications (2013-01-1548) 65 Karl William Steffke, Sudhakar Inguva, Daniel Van Cleve, James Knoc
21、keart, General Motors Co. Thermal Management Modeling for Avoidance of Thermal Runaway Conditions in Lithium Ion Batteries (2014-01-0707) . 75 Nicolas F. Poncaut, Francesco Colella, Ryan Spray, Quinn Horn, Exponent Inc. PT-175.indb 5 4/28/16 3:47 PMLithium-Ion Battery Pack for Stop and Start System
22、(2013-01-1538) . 83 Yamato Utsunomiya and Yuki Nagai, DENSO Corp.; Jun Kataoka and Hirobumi Awakawa Suzuki Motor Corp. Identification of Transportation Battery Systems for Recycling (2012-01-0351) 89 Todd F. Mackintosh, General Motors Co. About the Editor 95 PT-175.indb 6 4/28/16 3:47 PM1 Introducti
23、on Concerns regarding climate change, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, air quality, and consumption of fossil fuels have led to CO2 regulations in the European Union (95 g/km by 2020) and increasing CAF (Corporate Average Fuel Economy) standards in the United States (35 mpg by 2016 and 54.5 mpg by 20
24、25) for passenger cars. New, higher fuel economy standards are also being proposed for trucks and medium-duty vehicles. To achieve these aggressive fuel economy standards, carmakers have been adding different technologies to reduce fuel consumption, including hybridization and electrification. Mild
25、and strong hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) have been present in the market since the early 2000s, using NiMH batteries. They have proven successful, as evidenced by the popularity of the Toyota Prius model over the last 15 years, and now every major carmaker offers at least one HEV model. Some new H
26、EV models use lithium ion batteries because of their higher power density and lower volume in the vehicle. In recent years, plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and battery electric vehicles (BEVs) have been offered by several carmakers to further address GHG emissions and CO2 and fuel economy r
27、egulations. Their equivalent fuel economy is much higher with much lower CO2 emissions than HEVs. The Nissan Leaf BEV, Ford Fusion Energi Plug-In Hybrid, Chevy Volt Extended Range EV, and Tesla Model S BEV have been in the market for a number of years, and it appears that plug-in electric vehicles w
28、ill gain a decent share of the automotive market in the years to come. Because of its high energy and high power capabilities, lithium ion technology seems to be the battery format of choice for the upcoming generations of electrified vehicles. This special SAE publication is focused on lithium ion
29、technologies in electric drive vehicles (HEVs, PHEVs, EVs, EREVs, mild HEVs with 48 V, and even conventional vehicles with start/stop technology). Ten SAE technical papers are included in this publication, which examines several relevant issues for the implementation of lithium ion technology and re
30、views solutions offered in addressing those issues. Lithium ion technology is a class of rechargeable electrochemical energy storage devices in which lithium ions move from the negative electrode to the positive electrode during discharge (electrons move from positive to negative terminals) and back
31、 when charging. Lithium ion batteries use an intercalated lithium compound as electrode material, as compared to metallic lithium, which is used in non- rechargeable lithium batteries. The constituent components of a lithium ion battery cell include positive and negative electrodes; a separator, whi
32、ch isolates the two electrodes from shorting; and electrolyte, which allows for ionic movement. The choice of cathode and anode component material dictates the resulting energy density, power density, cycleability, life, safety, and cost of the cell. Cathodes may be lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2), li
33、thium iron phosphate (LiFePO4), lithium manganese oxide (LMnO or LMO), lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (LiNiCoAlO2 or NCA), or lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO2 or NMC). Anodes may be lithium-intercalated graphite or hard carbon, or lithium titanate (Li4Ti5O12 or LTO). Liquid el
34、ectrolytes in lithium ion batteries consist of lithium salts, such as LiPF6, LiBF4, or LiClO4 in an organic solvent, such as ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, diethyl carbonate, or a mixture of those. The solvent is flammable and is the cause of much concern about the overall safety of lithium
35、 ion batteries, prompting researchers to investigate non-flammable electrolytes. Separators are composed of polymer films (polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, sometimes enhanced with ceramic particles) which allow lithium ions to pass through from cathode to anode. The selection of lith
36、ium ion chemistry for a vehicle depends on the type of powertrain. HEVs need high power capabilities that can sustain 300,000 shallow cycles, while BEVs require high energy capabilities for 1000-2000 deep cycles. For example, LMO/hard carbon is currently used in the Hyundai Sonata, while NMC/graphit
37、e is used in the Tesla Model S BEV. For start/stop applications, NMC/titanate is being considered. In addition to high energy density or high power density, lithium ion batteries in vehicles must have a long calendar life (greater than 10 years) and sufficient cycle life, operate sufficiently at col
38、d and hot temperatures, and be safe under various abuse conditions. In this publication, papers have been selected which address these and other technical issues. Although the cost and affordability of lithium ion batteries is important in the adoption of the technology and the ultimate success of e
39、lectric drive vehicles, the focus of this publication is on the technical issues. End-of-life recycling of lithium batteries is also discussed. The first paper by Kinoshita, et.al, describes a high-capacity lithium ion battery pack developed for use in the 2012 Nissan Leaf electric vehicle, which wa
40、s launched globally for mass-markets. The pack consists of 48 modules, each of which consists of four laminated prismatic cells (two connected in parallel and two in series) to get the desired voltage, energy, and power capability needed for the Leaf. The cell chemistry is lithium manganese oxide/gr
41、aphite. The in-vehicle battery pack consists of the battery modules, switching equipment, controller, and other components. It is important to note that the energy density and specific power of the pack is much lower than those of a single cell, by 40% to 50%, because of the volume and weight of the
42、 supporting components. This paper is a good example of how cells are constructed into a module and modules into a pack, while discussing mechanical, electrical, safety, and thermal aspects of the design. The second paper by Taylor, et.al, discusses options for battery management system (BMS) develo
43、pment in accordance with ISO 26262. On-board electric energy storage is a key element of electrified vehicles, acting as an energy and power buffer. The high voltage batteries in these vehicles have provided new challenges to the controls validation process. Batteries change over their lifetime, and
44、 abuse of a battery can lead to premature failure, which, in rare cases, may be catastrophic. In this paper, hazards and risks of BMS malfunctions are identified and classified according to the standard. PT-175.indb 1 4/28/16 3:47 PM2 The third paper by Farag, et.al, looks at the difficulty of using
45、 high-energy lithium ion batteries in vehicles due to the lack of accurately estimating the amount of capacity remaining in the battery during operation time, commonly known as battery state of charge (SOC). This paper presents a comparative study between six different Equivalent Circuit lithium ion
46、 battery models and two different SOC estimation strategies. The battery models cover the state-of-the-art Equivalent Circuit models discussed in literature. Lithium ion battery SOC is estimated using non-linear estimation strategies, i.e. the Extended Kalman filter (EKF) and the Smooth Variable Str
47、ucture Filter (SVSF). The effectiveness of the models and estimation strategies is then compared through a comprehensive evaluation of model complexity, model accuracy, and root mean squared error in state of charge estimation. The fourth paper by Lee, et.al, discusses a new battery hardware in the
48、loop (HIL) platform based on reduced-order electrochemistry lithium ion battery models developed to overcome the limitations of the current equivalent circuit models (ECMs) in the HIL platform. Aggressive battery usage profiles in electrified vehicle applications require extensive efforts in develop
49、ing battery management strategy and system design determination to guarantee safe operation under real-world driving conditions. Reduced- order electrochemistry battery models show an excellent balance of real-time computation capability and prediction accuracy, and they can be directly implemented in the HIL platform. The fifth paper by Zhu, et.al, presents a three-dimensional electrochemical electrode plate pair model to study the effect of electrode tab configuration. Understanding the distribution of current density, potential, and heat generation
