1、Chassis Dynamometer Testing Addressing the Challenges of New Global Legislation (WLTP and RDE) 6685_Book.indb 1 4/18/17 2:22 PMOther SAE Books of Interest: Data Acquisition from HD Vehicles Using J1939 CAN Bus Richard P . Walter and Eric P . Walter (Product Code: R-446) Sensors: Miniaturization and
2、Testing (DVD) Spotlight on Design (Product Code: SOD-007) Fuel Efficiency: Fuel Economy Testing (DVD) Spotlight on Design (Product Code: SOD-003/1) Automotive Fuels Reference Book, Third Edition Paul Richards (Product Code: R-297) For more information or to order a book, contact: SAE International 4
3、00 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001, USA Phone: 877-606-7323 (U.S. and Canada only) or 724-776-4970 (outside U.S. and Canada) Fax: 724-776-0790 Email: CustomerServicesae.org Website: http:/ /books.sae.org 6685_Book.indb 2 4/18/17 2:22 PMChassis Dynamometer Testing Addressing the Challeng
4、es of New Global Legislation (WLTP and RDE) Eduardo Galindo, David Blanco, Chris Brace, Ed Chappell, Richard Burke Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA 6685_Book.indb 3 4/18/17 2:22 PM400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA E-mail: CustomerServicesae.org Phone: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Can
5、ada) 724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-0790 Copyright 2017 SAE International. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, distributed, or trans- mitted, in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of SAE International.
6、For permission and licensing requests, contact SAE Permissions, 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA; e-mail: copyrightsae.org; phone: 724-772-4028; fax: 724-772-9765. Library of Congress Catalog Number 2016955855 SAE Order Number R-452 http:/dx.doi.org/10.4271/R-452 Information con
7、tained in this work has been obtained by SAE International from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither SAE International nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein and neither SAE International nor its authors shall be responsible for any er
8、rors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this informa- tion. This work is published with the understanding that SAE International and its authors are supplying information, but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assist
9、ance of an appropriate professional should be sought. ISBN-Print 978-0-7680-8278-4 ISBN-PDF 978-0-7680-8412-2 ISBN-epub 978-0-7680-8414-6 ISBN-prc 978-0-7680-8413-9 To purchase bulk quantities, please contact: SAE Customer Service E-mail: CustomerServicesae.org Phone: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Ca
10、nada) 724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-0790 Visit the SAE International Bookstore at books.sae.org 6685_Book.indb 4 4/18/17 2:22 PMv Contents Introduction xiii I.1 General Objective . xiv I.2 Book Structure . xiv Acknowledgments .xv Part IThe Vehicle Chapter 1: Parameters of Influence on a Mo
11、ving Vehicle 3 1.1 Equations of Motion . 3 1.1.1 Vehicle Inertial Loads F I. 4 1.1.2 Force because of Gravity F g7 1.1.3 Aerodynamic Drag F AD8 1.1.4 Force because of Tire Rolling Resistance F RR8 1.1.5 Tractive Power and Energy Equation 9 1.1.6 Alternative Arrangement of Vehicle Load Terms . 9 1.2
12、Vehicle Energy Use and Distribution of Losses . 10 1.2.1 Vehicle Performance and Efficiency: Energy Distribution 10 1.2.2 Main Factors Affecting a Vehicle 11 1.3 Wind: Interaction between Air and Vehicle 12 1.3.1 Underhood Air Ducting . 13 1.3.2 Brake Cooling . 14 1.3.3 Flow underneath the Vehicle .
13、 15 1.3.4 Airflow around the V ehicle 15 1.3.5 Airflow around the Tires 16 References . 16 Chapter 2: Engine Architecture Performance and Efficiency 17 2.1 Introduction . 17 2.2 Engine Energy Distribution 18 2.2.1 Gasoline Engine Energy Distribution . 19 2.2.2 Diesel Engine Energy Distribution 20 2.
14、3 Effects of Ambient Conditions on Engine Performance 21 2.3.1 Effect on Temperature and Pressure 21 6685_Book.indb 5 4/18/17 2:22 PMvi Contents 2.3.2 Effect of Humidity . 24 2.3.3 Effect of Altitude . 27 2.3.4 Summary of the Environmental Effect on Engine Power . 28 2.3.5 Standardized Correction Fa
15、ctors . 30 2.4 Engine Warm-Up and Cooling . 30 2.4.1 Cold Start Combustion 31 2.4.2 Engine Friction Losses Versus Temperature 31 2.4.3 Engine Warm-Up 33 2.5 Engine Lubrication . 33 2.5.1 Oil Pump . 35 2.5.2 Lubrication Oil Properties . 36 2.5.2.1 Viscosity 36 2.5.2.2 Viscosity Measurement Methods .
16、37 2.5.2.3 Viscosity Index 38 2.5.2.4 Additives . 39 2.5.3 Minimum Starting Temperature 39 References . 40 Chapter 3: Engine Ancillary Devices . 41 3.1 Introduction . 41 3.2 Power Steering . 42 3.2.1 Introduction to Power Steering Systems . 42 3.2.2 Factors Affecting Hydraulic Power Steering Efficie
17、ncy 44 3.3 Air Conditioning Compressor 45 3.3.1 The Refrigeration Cycle . 45 3.3.2 V ehicle Air Conditioning 45 3.3.3 Vehicle Air Conditioning Control . 46 3.3.4 Dimensioning a Vehicle Air Conditioning System 47 3.3.5 Factors Affecting Vehicle Air Conditioning Performance . 49 3.3.5.1 Influence by S
18、olar Radiation . 49 3.3.5.2 The Vehicle Cabin Size 50 3.3.5.3 Fresh Air Ratio (Air Recirculation) . 51 3.3.5.4 Vehicle Speed . 52 3.3.5.5 Number of Passengers 53 3.4 Alternator . 54 3.5 Water Pump . 55 References . 56 Chapter 4: The Pneumatic Tire and Rolling Resistance 57 4.1 Introduction . 57 4.2
19、The Concept of Rolling Resistance 59 4.3 Rolling Resistance Coefficient 60 4.4 Rolling Resistance Dependence 61 6685_Book.indb 6 4/18/17 2:22 PMvii Contents 4.4.1 Influence of Inflation Pressure . 61 4.4.2 Influence of Tire Temperature 63 4.4.3 Influence of Vehicle Speed on Tires . 64 4.4.4 Influenc
20、e of Warm-Up Time . 67 4.4.5 Tire Aerodynamic Drag . 68 4.4.5.1 Affecting the Vehicles Properties 68 4.4.5.2 Effects of Tire Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 4.5 Tire Rolling Resistance Measurements 69 References . 69 Chapter 5: Exhaust Emissions and Aftertreatment Sys
21、tems. 71 5.1 Introduction . 71 5.2 Exhaust Components . 71 5.2.1 Nonharmful . 72 5.2.2 Harmful 72 5.3 Exhaust Emission Component Creation . 74 5.3.1 NO x74 5.3.2 Carbon Monoxide 75 5.3.3 Hydrocarbons . 75 5.3.4 Particulate Matter 75 5.4 Exhaust Emissions Control Systems 75 5.4.1 Catalytic Converters
22、 76 5.4.1.1 Diesel Oxidation Catalyst . 78 5.4.1.2 Three-Way Catalytic Converter 78 5.4.2 Chemical Reactors . 79 5.4.3 Chemical Filters 81 5.4.4 Particle Filters . 81 5.5 Exhaust Pipe Temperatures 82 5.6 Parameters Influencing Emissions 83 5.6.1 Influence of Speed 83 5.6.2 Influence of Absolute Humi
23、dity 84 5.6.3 Influence of Engine Temperature . 85 5.6.4 Influence of Ambient Temperature . 86 References . 86 Summary of Part IThe Vehicle . 87 Part IIThe Test Cell Chapter 6: The Chassis Dynamometer Test Cell 91 6.1 Introduction . 91 6.2 The Chassis Dynamometer Test Cell 91 6.2.1 Chassis Dynamomet
24、er 92 6.2.2 Vehicle Cooling Blower . 93 6685_Book.indb 7 4/18/17 2:22 PMviii Contents 6.2.3 Ventilation or Refrigeration System . 94 6.2.4 Air Intake System in Chassis Dynamometer Test Cells 94 6.2.5 Exhaust Extraction System 95 References . 96 Chapter 7: The Chassis Dynamometer.97 7.1 Introduction
25、. 97 7.2 Vehicle Tractive Energy and Power Demand Review 97 7.3 Simulating Vehicle Tractive Energy and Power Demand on a Chassis Dynamometer . 98 7.3.1 Inertia Force F I. 98 7.3.2 Gravity F g. 99 7.3.3 Aerodynamic Drag F AD. 99 7.3.4 Tire Rolling Resistance F RR99 7.4 Measuring Vehicle Characteristi
26、c Parameters . 100 7.4.1 Coast-Down Test 101 7.4.2 Coast-Down Equation . 102 7.5 Chassis Dynamometer Load Setting Procedure 103 7.6 Simulating Road Load on the Dynamometer 104 References 106 Chapter 8: The Vehicle Cooling Blower.107 8.1 Introduction 107 8.2 Wind Blower Classification Depending on th
27、e Kind of Test . 107 8.2.1 Aeroclimatic Tests . 109 8.2.2 Emission Tests . 110 8.2.3 Research and Development 110 8.2.3.1 Real-Driving Emission Simulation in a Chassis Dynamometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110 8.2.3.2 Friction Tests 112 8.2.4 High Speed/Durabil
28、ity Tests 113 Chapter 9: Chassis Dynamometer HVACR 115 9.1 Introduction . 115 9.2 Main Thermal Loads in the Test Cell 115 9.3 HVACR Design Criteria . 117 9.4 Ambient Temperature Chassis Dynamometer Test Cell 117 9.4.1 Non-Humidity Controlled Test Cell 117 9.4.2 Humidity Controlled Test Cell . 118 9.
29、4.2.1 Single-Stage AHU 118 9.4.2.2 Two-Stage AHU . 119 9.4.3 How to Control the Condensation in the Cooling Coil 121 9.4.3.1 Constant Temperature with Variable Flow 122 9.4.3.2 Constant Flow with Variable Temperature 122 6685_Book.indb 8 4/18/17 2:22 PMix Contents 9.5 Low Temperature Chassis Dynamom
30、eter Test Cell . 123 9.5.1 Introduction to the Refrigeration Machine 123 9.5.2 Performances and Efficiencies 124 9.5.3 Refrigeration Systems in Chassis Dynamometers 125 9.5.3.1 Direct Expansion System . 126 9.5.3.2 Indirect Expansion Systems Using Thermal Fluids 126 9.5.4 Working Principle of a Refr
31、igeration Plant 126 9.5.5 Evaporator Control Capacity . 129 9.5.6 Compressor Capacity Control . 130 9.5.7 Hot Gas Bypass Capacity Control . 131 9.5.8 Evaporator Temperature Control 132 9.5.9 Chassis Dynamometer Refrigeration Plant with Direct Expansion 134 9.5.10 Indirect Expansion Chassis Dynamomet
32、er Refrigeration Plant with Thermal Fluids . 135 9.5.11 Combined Systems . 136 Chapter 10: Air Intake in Chassis Dynamometer Test Cells .137 10.1 Introduction . 137 10.2 Basic Functions of an Air Intake Handling Unit 138 10.3 Humidity Control 139 10.3.1 Air Dryers . 139 10.3.1.1 Dehumidification by
33、Condensation 139 10.3.1.2 Desiccant Dehumidifier . 140 10.3.2 Humidification Technologies 141 10.3.2.1 Atmospheric Pressure Humidifiers . 142 10.3.2.2 Pressurized Humidifiers 142 10.4 Operating Principle of an Air Intake Handling Unit . 143 Chapter 11: Instrumentation and Control . . . . . . . . . .
34、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 11.1 Introduction . 145 11.2 Vehicle Power, Torque, and Speed 145 11.3 Exhaust Emissions 146 11.3.1 Emissions Analyzers 146 11.3.1.1 Nondispersive Infrared Analyzers 147 11.3.1.2 Flame Ionization Detector Analyzers . 147 11.3.1.3 Chemiluminescence Detector Analyzers 14
35、8 11.3.1.4 Fourier Transform Infrared 149 11.3.2 Diesel Particle Emission Measurement (PM) . 149 11.3.3 Diesel Particle Counter (PN) . 149 11.3.4 Smoke Opacity Meters 150 11.3.5 Portable Equipment Measurement 150 11.3.6 Gas Sampling 151 11.3.6.1 Undiluted Analytics (Raw Sampling) . 151 6685_Book.ind
36、b 9 4/18/17 2:22 PMx Contents 11.3.6.2 Partial Flow Dilution . 151 11.3.6.3 Fully Diluted Sampling (CVS) . 152 11.3.7 Constant Volume Sampling 152 11.3.8 Complete Emission Setup . 153 11.3.8.1 Undiluted Analytics 153 11.3.8.2 Partial Flow Dilution . 153 11.3.8.3 Full Flow Dilution (CVS) 154 11.4 Fue
37、l Consumption Measurement . 154 11.4.1 Carbon Balance 154 11.4.2 Engine Control Unit 154 11.4.3 External Fuel Combustion Measuring Devices . 155 11.5 Other Engine and Vehicle Parameters . 155 11.6 Chassis Dyno Control . 155 References 155 Summary of Part IIThe Test Cell. 157 Part IIIVehicle Homologa
38、tion Process and Tests Chapter 12: Chassis Dynamometer Test Standards 161 12.1 Introduction . 161 12.2 The History of Emission Testing Procedures . 162 12.3 Worldwide Emission Testing Procedures and Standards . 164 12.3.1 United States 165 12.3.1.1 U.S. Vehicle Testing and Enforcement Program . 165
39、12.3.1.2 U.S. Test Cycles 166 12.3.2 Europe . 171 12.3.2.1 European Union Vehicle Testing and Enforcement Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 12.3.2.2 European Union Test Cycles . 173 12.3.2.3 The New European Driving Cycle (ECE 15 + EUDC) 173 12.4 Environmental Requirement
40、s for the Emissions of the Chassis Dynamometer Test Cell . 175 References 177 Chapter 13: The Need of a New Emission Regulation .179 13.1 Is the EU Legislation in 2016 Fulfilling Its Final Goal? . 179 13.2 Inaccuracies of Existing Legislations 181 13.2.1 What Is the Reason for these Deviations? 181
41、13.2.2 Technology Deployment 183 13.2.2.1 The EU Driving Cycle 183 13.2.2.2 The Problem of a Defined Cycle 184 13.2.3 Road Load Determination Factor . 184 6685_Book.indb 10 4/18/17 2:22 PMxi Contents 13.3 Chassis Dynamometer Testing . 186 13.3.1 Tolerance of Instruments 187 13.3.1.1 The Roller 187 1
42、3.3.1.2 The Vehicle Blower . 189 13.3.1.3 The HVACR System 190 13.3.2 Tolerance of Vehicle Preparation . 192 13.3.2.1 Status of Electrical Ancillaries . 192 13.3.2.2 Battery State of Charge . 192 13.3.2.3 Tire Pressure 193 13.3.3 Driving Techniques . 193 13.3.3.1 The Type Approval Driver 193 13.3.3.
43、2 Speed Error . 195 13.3.3.3 Accelerator Pedal Busyness . 195 13.3.3.4 Gear Shifting 195 13.3.4 Other Factors 196 13.4 The Need for New Emission Legislation . 196 13.4.1 A Global Legislation for Global Vehicles . 196 13.4.2 Legislation Beyond September 2017 197 References 197 Chapter 14: The World L
44、ight Duty Test Procedure (GTR-15) 199 14.1 Introduction . 199 14.2 Improving Testing Accuracy with WLTP 200 14.2.1 Technology Deployment 200 14.2.1.1 The Driving Cycle . 200 14.2.2 Road Load Determination Factor . 205 14.3 Chassis Dynamometer Testing . 206 14.3.1 Tolerance of Instruments 206 14.3.1.
45、1 The Vehicle Blower . 206 14.3.1.2 The HVACR System 206 14.3.2 Tolerance of Vehicle Preparation . 207 14.3.2.1 Battery State of Charge . 207 14.3.2.2 Tire Pressure 207 14.3.2.3 Gear Shifting 207 14.4 Expected Results From WLTP 207 References 208 Chapter 15: Real-Driving Emissions209 15.1 Introducti
46、on . 209 15.2 Requirements for Real-Driving Emissions . 209 15.3 Preparing Vehicles for RDE 210 References . 211 6685_Book.indb 11 4/18/17 2:22 PMxii Contents Summary of Part IIIVehicle Homologation Process and Tests 213 Notation(s) 215 About the Authors 221 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 6685_Book.indb 12 4/18/17 2:22 PMxiii I Introduction The use of the chassis dynamometer test cell has been an integral part of the vehicle development and validation process for several decades. Developm
48、ents in global climate science and environmental health monitoring have driven a wide-ranging debate in the fields of CO 2reduction and air quality improvement. This discourse has focused on road transport and, especially, passenger cars because they are a very visible and tangible sector requiring
49、improvement. Events have moved the type approval testing of passenger cars from being a somewhat niche topic understood by a small group of engineers and regulators into a widespread topic of conversation. The deficiencies in historical testing regimes and the failure of some companies to adequately regulate their own work have focused the attention of regulators, policy makers, and the public on laboratory procedures and instrumentation methods in an unprecedented manner. For practicing engineers, it is important to understand our wider role in society, as well as in our own org
