1、34.1CHAPTER 34ENERGY RESOURCESCHARACTERISTICS OF ENERGY AND ENERGY RESOURCE FORMS . 34.1On-Site Energy/Energy Resource Relationships 34.2Summary 34.3ENERGY RESOURCE PLANNING. 34.3Integrated Resource Planning (IRP) 34.3Tradable Emission Credits . 34.3OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL ENERGY RESOURCES. 34.4World Ene
2、rgy Resources 34.4Carbon Emissions 34.6U.S. Energy Use . 34.7U.S. Agencies and Associations . 34.8NERGY used in buildings and facilities is responsible for 30E to 40% of the worlds energy use, significantly impacting worldenergy resources. ASHRAEs work to reduce energy consumptionin the built enviro
3、nment is equally as important as research on new,more sustainable energy sources in helping ensure a reliable andsecure supply of energy for future generations.Many governmental agencies regulate energy conservation, oftenthrough the procedures to obtain building permits. Required effi-ciency values
4、 for building energy use strongly influence selection ofHVAC or (2) renewableresources, which have the potential to regenerate in a reasonableperiod. Resources used most in industrialized countries are nonre-newable (ASHRAE 2003).Note that renewable does not mean an infinite supply. For in-stance, h
5、ydropower is limited by rainfall and appropriate sites, usablegeothermal energy is available only in limited areas, and crops arelimited by the available farm area and competing nonenergy landuses. Other forms of renewable energy also have supply limitations.Nonrenewable resources of energy includeC
6、oalCrude oilNatural gasUranium or plutonium (nuclear energy)Renewable resources of energy includeHydropowerSolarWindEarth heat (geothermal)Biomass (wood, wood wastes, and municipal solid waste, landfillmethane, etc.)Tidal powerOcean thermalAtmosphere or large body of water (as used by the heat pump)
7、Crops (for alcohol production or as boiler fuel)Characteristics of Fossil Fuels and ElectricityMost on-site energy for buildings in developed countries involveselectricity and fossil fuels as energy sources. Both fossil fuels andelectricity can be described by their energy content (joules). Thisimpl
8、ies that energy forms are comparable and that an equivalencecan be established. In reality, however, they are only comparable inenergy terms when they are used to generate heat. Fossil fuels, forexample, cannot directly drive motors or energize light bulbs. Con-versely, electricity gives off heat as
9、 a by-product regardless ofwhether it is used for running a motor or lighting a light bulb, andregardless of whether that heat is needed. Thus, electricity and fossilThe preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 2.8, Building Environmen-tal Impacts and Sustainability.34.2 2013 ASHRAE HandbookFun
10、damentals (SI)fuels have different characteristics, uses, and capabilities aside fromany differences in their derivation.Other differences between energy forms include methods of ex-traction, transformation, transportation, and delivery, and character-istics of the resource itself. Natural gas arriv
11、es at the site in virtuallythe same form in which it was extracted from the earth. Oil is pro-cessed (distilled) before arriving at the site; having been extracted ascrude oil, it arrives at a given site as, for example, No. 2 oil or dieselfuel. Electricity is created (converted) from a different en
12、ergy form,often a fossil fuel, which itself may first be converted to a thermalform. The total electricity conversion, generation, and distributionprocess includes energy losses governed largely by the laws of ther-modynamics.Fossil fuels undergo a conversion process by combustion (oxida-tion) and h
13、eat transfer to thermal energy in the form of steam or hotwater. The conversion equipment is a boiler or a furnace in lieu of agenerator, and conversion usually occurs on a project site rather thanoff-site. (District heating or cooling is an exception.) Inefficienciesof the fossil fuel conversion oc
14、cur on site, whereas inefficiencies ofmost electricity generation occur off site, before the electricityarrives at the building site. (Cogeneration is an exception.)Sustainability is an important consideration for energy use. TheUnited Nations Brundtland Report (UN 1987) stated that the devel-opment
15、 of the built environment is sustainable if it “meets the needs ofthe present without compromising the ability of future generations tomeet their own needs.” More information is in Chapter 35.ON-SITE ENERGY/ENERGY RESOURCE RELATIONSHIPSAn HVAC for electricity, it includes the percentage ofgeneration
16、 from various fuel sources. Consider the projected futuresupply and reliability of energy resources, including the possibilityof supply disruption by natural or political events, and the likeli-hood of future supply shortages, which could reduce reliability.Reserve margins, or the ratio of total sup
17、ply sources to expectedpeak supply source needs. Reserve levels that are too high resultin waste of resources, higher environmental costs, and possiblypoor financial health of the energy suppliers. Reserves that are toolow result in volatile and very high peak energy prices and re-duced reliability.
18、Land use. Energy production and transmission often require gov-ernmental cooperation to condemn private property for energyproduction and transmission facilities. Construction and mainte-nance are also regulated to protect wetlands, prevent toxic wastereleases, and other environmental issues.Note th
19、at some energy deregulation plans provide no guidance atall on energy supplies, through integrated resource planning (IRP) orother methods. Energy suppliers choose whether to expand theircapacity, and what types of fuel those facilities use, based on theirown assessment of the future profitability o
20、f that investment. In thesemarkets, decisions are made with little societal input other than per-mitting and pollution control regulations, just as a decision might bemade by a manufacturer in an industry such as steel or paper.INTEGRATED RESOURCE PLANNING (IRP)In regulated utility markets, integrat
21、ed resource planning is com-monly used for planning significant new energy facilities, especiallyfor electricity. Steps include (1) forecasting the amount of newresources needed and (2) determining the type and provider of thisresource. Traditionally, the local utility provider forecasts futureneeds
22、 of a given energy resource, then either builds the necessaryfacility with the approval of regulators or uses a standard offer bidto determine what nonutility provider (or the utility itself) wouldprovide the new energy resource.Supplying new energy resources through either a standard bidprocess by
23、a supplier or traditional utility regulation usually resultsin selection of the lowest-cost supply option, without regard forenvironmental costs or other societal needs. IRP allows a greatervariety of resource options and allows environmental and other indi-rect societal costs to be given greater co
24、nsideration.IRP addresses a wider population of stakeholders than mostother planning processes. Many regulatory agencies involve thepublic in the formulation and review of integrated resource plans.Customers, environmentalists, and other public interest groups areoften prominent in these proceedings
25、.In deregulated energy markets, supplying markets with newenergy resources is typically left up to competitive market forces.This has sometimes resulted in excessive reliance on one form ofenergy, such as natural gas generation. Another result has beenhighly volatile prices, when supply is not provi
26、ded because of insuf-ficient price signals, followed by much higher prices and energyshortages until new supply sources can be obtained (which may notbe for several years because of the time required for constructionand environmental approval processes). Energy efficiency anddemand response programs
27、 are increasingly treated as an energyresource on a par with energy production options, with incentivesand compensation provided for participants in these programs.Demand-side management (DSM) is a common option for pro-viding new energy resources, especially for electricity. These areactions taken
28、to reduce the demand for energy, rather than increasethe supply of energy. DSM is desirable because its environmentalcosts are almost always lower than those of building new energyfacilities. However, the following factors have caused a decline inthe number of DSM programs:Building and equipment cod
29、es and standards are a highly efficientform of DSM, reducing energy use with much lower administra-tive costs than programs that reward installation of more efficientequipment at a single site. However, they are more subtle than tra-ditional DSM programs and may not always be recognized as aform of
30、DSM.Opening markets to competing suppliers makes it more difficultto administer and implement DSM programs. However, they arestill possible if regulators wish to continue them, and set appro-priate rules and regulations for the market to allow implementa-tion of DSM programs.Many IRP participants ma
31、y be interested in only one aspect ofthe process. For example, the energy industrys main interest may becost minimization, whereas environmentalists may want to mini-mize pollutant emissions and prevent environmental damage fromconstruction of energy facilities. Participation by all affected inter-e
32、st groups helps provide the best overall solution for society, includ-ing indirect costs and benefits from these energy resource decisions.TRADABLE EMISSION CREDITSIncreasingly, quotas and limits apply to emissions of various pol-lutants. Often, a market-based system of tradable credits is usedwith
33、these quotas. A company is given the right to produce a givenlevel of emissions, and it earns a credit, which can be sold to others,if it produces fewer emissions than that level. If one company canreduce its emissions at a lower cost than another, it can do so and sellthe emissions credit to the se
34、cond company and earn a profit from itspollution control efforts. In the United States, emissions quota andtrading programs currently include sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitro-gen oxides (NOx), with plans to implement carbon dioxide (CO2)trading now under consideration, as well. In Europe, emissions34.
35、4 2013 ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals (SI)trading for CO2began January 1, 2005. To date, this type of activityhas mostly involved large industrial plants, but it can also involvecommercial buildings with on-site emissions, such as generationequipment or gas-engine-driven cooling.Designers must be aware
36、 of any regulations concerning pollutantemissions; failure to comply with these regulations may result incivil or criminal penalties for designers or their clients. However,understand the options available under these regulations. The pur-chase or sale of emissions credits may allow reduced construc
37、tion orbuilding operations costs if the equipment can overcomply at alower cost than the cost of another source of emissions to comply, orvice versa. In some cases, documentation of energy savings beyondwhat codes and regulations require can result in receiving emissionscredits that may be sold late
38、r.OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL ENERGY RESOURCESWORLD ENERGY RESOURCESData in this section are from the Statistical Review of WorldEnergy 2012 (BP 2012).ProductionEnergy production trends, by leading producers and worldregions, from 2001 to 2010 are shown in Figure 1.World primary energy production increased 2
39、6.6% from 2001 to2010, as dramatic economic growth occurred in countries such asChina, which more than doubled its energy production since 2001.The largest total energy producers in 2010 were China (19%), theUnited States (15%), Russia (10%), and Saudi Arabia (6%). To-gether, they produced about 50%
40、 of the worlds energy production.Total world energy production by resource type for 2001 and2010 is shown in Figure 2. The greatest growth in energy productionamong major sources has been coal, up nearly 52% in usage from2001 to 2010, and natural gas, which has increased 28.7%, and hydro-electric, u
41、p 32.6%. Petroleum use only rose 8.7%. Nonhydro renew-ables use more than doubled, but is still a small percentage of totalworld energy production (EIA 2011).Crude Oil. World crude oil production was 82.1 million barrels(9 790 000 m3) per day in 2010. The biggest crude oil producers in2010 were the
42、Middle East (30%), Russia (13%), Central/SouthAmerica (9%), the United States (9%), and China (5%). Since 2001,oil production increased 66% in Russia and declined by 4% inthe United States (although between 2005 and 2010, U.S. produc-tion actually increased 8%).Natural Gas. World production reached
43、3193.3 billion m3in2010, up 32% from the 2000 level. The biggest producers in 2005were the United States (19%), Russia (18%), Canada (5%), Iran(5%), and Qatar (4%).Coal. At 156.2 EJ in 2010, coal production was up 58.6% since2000. Leading producers of coal were China (48%), the UnitedStates (15%), I
44、ndia (6%), and Australia (6%). Since 2000, Chinaincreased coal production 136%, and India increased 63%, whereasU.S. production fell by 3%.ReservesOn January 1, 2011, estimated world reserves of crude oil andgas were distributed by world region as shown in Figures 3 and 4.Countries with the largest
45、reported crude oil reserves are SaudiArabia (18%), Canada (12%), Iran (9%), and Iraq (8%). Most ofCanadas crude oil reserves are in the form of tar sands, which haveonly recently been included as proven reserves.World coal reserves as of January 1, 2010, are shown by regionin Figure 5. The most plen
46、tiful reserves, as a percent of total, werein the United States (28%), Russia (18%), China (13%), Australia(9%), and India (7%).Fig. 1 Energy Production Trends: 2001-2010(Basis: BP 2012)Fig. 2 World Primary Energy Production by Resource:2001 Versus 2010(Basis: BP 2012)Fig. 3 World Crude Oil Reserves
47、: 2011(Basis: BP 2012)Fig. 4 World Natural Gas Reserves: 2011(Basis: BP 2012)Energy Resources 34.5An important factor is the relative amount of these energyresources that has not yet been consumed. A standard measure iscalled proved energy reserves, which is the remaining knowndeposits that could be
48、 recovered economically given current eco-nomic and operating conditions. Dividing proved reserves by thecurrent production rate gives the number of years of the resourceremaining. Using this measure, the reserve-to-production ratio atthe end of 2010 for crude oil was 52.6 years; for natural gas, 59
49、.0years; and for coal, 118.4 years.This does not mean that these resources will be depleted in thatlength of time: additional resources may be discovered in new areas,and improved technology may increase the amount of a resource thatmay be economically extracted. Also, the future rate of production andconsumption may be higher or lower than current levels, which woulddecrease or increase the remaining years of a resource. However,reserve-to-production ratios provide insights into the limited nature ofnonrenewable energy resources and the need to find alternatives, espe-cially for re
