1、Designation: E175 82 (Reapproved 2010)Standard Terminology ofMicroscopy1This standard is issued under the fixed designation E175; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses in
2、dicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon () indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.This standard has been approved for use by agencies of the Department of Defense.Abbe condensersee condenser, Abbe.aberrationany error that results in image degradation. S
3、ucherrors may be chromatic, spherical, astigmatic, comatic,distortion, or curvature of field; and can result from design orexecution, or both.achromaticliterally, color-free. A lens or prism is said to beachromatic when corrected for two colors. The remainingcolor seen in an image formed by such a l
4、ens is said to besecondary chromatic aberration.achromatic objectivean objective that is corrected chro-matically for two colors, and spherically for one, usually inthe yellow-green part of the spectrum.Airy diskthe image of a bright point object, as focused by alens system. With monochromatic light
5、, it consists of acentral point of maximum intensity surrounded by alternatecircles of light and darkness caused by the reinforcement andinterference of diffracted rays. The light areas are calledmaxima and the dark areas minima. The distribution of lightfrom the center to the outer areas of the fig
6、ure wasinvestigated mathematically by Sir GeorgeAiry. The diffrac-tion disk forms a basis for determining the resolving powerof an ideal lens system. The diameter of the disk dependslargely on the aperture of the lens. The diffraction of lightcausing the Airy disk is a factor limiting the resolution
7、 of awell corrected optical system.analyzeran optical device, capable of producing planepolarized light, used for detecting the state of polarization.angstrm unita unit of linear measure named after A. J.ngstrm. It is 1 3 1010metres; 1 m = 10,000 . It isgenerally abbreviated as A. in the United Stat
8、es; elsewhere,it is variously abbreviated , A., A.U., ., or U.angular aperturesee aperture, angular.aperture, angularthe angle between the most divergent raysthat can pass through a lens to form the image of an object.aperture, effectivethe diameter of the entrance pupil; it isthe apparent diameter
9、of the limiting aperture measured fromthe front.aplanaticcorrected for spherical aberration and coma.apochromatic objectivea lens system whose secondarychromatic aberrations have been substantially reduced. (Seeachromatic).axis, opticalthe line formed by the coinciding principal axesof a series of o
10、ptical elements comprising an optical system.It is the line passing through the centers of curvature of theoptical surfaces.axis, opticthe direction, or directions in an anisotropiccrystal along which light is not doubly refracted.balsam, Canadaa resin from the balsam fir Abies balsamea.Dissolved in
11、 xylene, toluene, or benzene it is used as amountant for permanent microscopical preparations. Itsrefractive index may vary from 1.530 to 1.545 and itssoftening point from room temperature to 100C, theseproperties varying with age and solvent content. If impure itdiscolors with age.Bertrand lenssee
12、lens, Bertrand.bisectrix, acutein biaxial crystals, that principal axis of theellipsoid of indexes which bisects the smaller angle betweenthe optic axes.bisectrix, obtusein biaxial crystals, that principal axis of theellipsoid of indexes which bisects the larger angle betweenthe optic axes.calcitea
13、doubly refracting mineral used in the manufactureof polarizing prisms. It is uniaxial negative and in thetrigonal diversion of the hexagonal system of crystals. Itsindexes are = 1.486, v = 1.658; its hardness is 3 on theMohr scale and specific gravity 2.711.Canada balsamsee balsam, Canada.chromatic
14、aberrationa defect in a lens or lens system as aresult of which the lens possesses different focal lengths forradiation of different wavelengths.collimationthe operation of controlling a beam of radiationso that if the light source were a point, the light rays wouldbecome parallel. The total bundle
15、of rays diverge as thesource size increases.1This terminology is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E41 onLaboratory Apparatus and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E41.01 onApparatusCurrent edition approved July 1, 2010 . Published July 2010. Originally approvedin 1961. Last previo
16、us edition approved in 2005 as E175 82 (2005). DOI:10.1520/E0175-82R10.1Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United Saa lens aberration occurring in that part of the imagefield that is some distance from the principal axis of thesystem.
17、It results from different magnification in the variouslens zones. Extra-axial object points appear as short comet-like images with the brighter small head toward the center ofthe field (positive coma) or away from the center (negativecoma).compensating eyepiecesthose designed for use with objec-tive
18、s such as apochromats in order to correct chromaticaberration.condenser or condenser lensa term applied to lenses ormirrors designed to collect, control, and concentrate radia-tion in an illumination system.condenser, Abbeoriginally a two-lens substage condensercombination designed by Ernst Abbe. It
19、 lacks chromaticcorrection though designed for a minimum of sphericalaberration and has only a very low-angle aplanatic cone. Itmay be rated with a numerical aperture as high as 1.3.condenser, darkfielda condenser forming a hollow cone oflight with its apex (or focal point) in the plane of thespecim
20、en. When used with an objective having a numericalaperture lower than the minimum numerical aperture of thehollow cone, only light deviated by the specimen enters theobjective. Objects are seen as bright images against a darkbackground.condenser, darkfield, bispherica darkfield condenser con-sisting
21、 of a convex spherical reflector mounted concentricwith a larger concave reflector. The rays are formed into adiverging cone by the convex reflector. The annular concavereflector then forms a hollow converging cone which isfocused on the subject. See condenser, darkfield.condenser, darkfield, parabo
22、loida darkfield condenserconsisting of a reflecting surface in the form of a segment ofa paraboloid of revolution. Parallel rays entering the con-denser around the periphery of the central stop are reflectedfrom the curved surfaces and converge at the focus of theparaboloid. See condenser, darkfield
23、.condenser, variable-focusessentially an Abbe condenser inwhich the upper lens element is fixed and the lower movable.The lower lens may be used to focus the illuminationbetween the elements so that it emerges from the stationarylens as a large diameter parallel bundle. The field oflow-power objecti
24、ves may thus be filled without removingthe top element.At the opposite extreme it can be adjusted tohave a numerical aperture as high as 1.3.critical illuminationsee illumination, critical.crystal, birefringenta pertaining to the use of a microscope.curvature of fielda property of lens that causes t
25、he image ofa plane to be focused into a curved surface instead of a plane.darkfield condensersee condenser, darkfield.density. opticallogarithm to the vase 10 of the reciprocal oftransmittance.depth of fieldthe depth or thickness of the object space thatis simultaneously in acceptable focus.depth of
26、 focusthe depth or thickness of the image space thatsimultaneously in acceptable focus.diaphragma fixed or adjustable aperture in an opticalsystem. Diaphragms are used to intercept scattered light, tolimit field angles, or to limit image-forming bundles or rays.disk, Airysee Airy disk.distance, inte
27、rpupillarysee interpupillary distance.dry objectiveany microscope objective designed for usewithout immersion liquids.electromagnetic lensan electromagnet designed to producea suitably shaped magnetic field for the focusing anddeflection of electrons or other charged particles in electron-optical in
28、strumentation.electron microscopesee microscope, electron.electron opticsthe science that deals with propagation ofelectrons, as light optics deals with that of light and itsphenomena.eye lenssee lens, eye.eyepiecethe lens system used in an optical for magnificationof the image formed by the objecti
29、ve.eyepiece, parfocaleyepieces with common focal planes sothat they are interchangeable without refocusing.eyepiece, positivean eyepiece in which the real image of theobject is formed below the lower lens elements of theeyepiece.filar micrometer or filar eyepiecean eyepiece equippedwith a fiducial l
30、ine in its focal plane, that is movable bymeans of a calibrated micrometer screw, in order to makeaccurate measurements of length.focus, principalthe point at which a lens focuses an axialobject pint. Synonymous with focal point.illumination, criticalthe formation of an image of the lightsource in t
31、he object field. (Also known as Nelson illumina-tion)illumination, Khlera method of microscopical illumina-tion, first described by A. Khler, in which an image of thesource is focused in the lower focal plane of the condenser,and the field diaphragm is focused in the specimen plane.illumination, obl
32、iqueillumination from light inclined at anoblique angle to the optical axis.imagea representation of an object produced by means ofradiation usually with a lens or mirror system.immersion objectivean objective in which a medium ofhigh refractive index is used in the object space to increasethe numer
33、ical aperture and hence the resolving power of thelens.interpupillary distancethe distance between the centers ofthe pupils of the eye. The binocular microscope tubes mustbe adjustable for this distance.Khler illuminationsee illumination, Khler.lensa transparent optical element, so constructed that
34、itserves to change the degree of convergence or divergence ofthe transmitted rays.lens, Bertranda small convergent lens placed betweenobjectives and eyepiece. The lens focuses an image of theupper focal plane of the objective on the focal plane of theeyepiece. It is chiefly used with polarized light
35、 for inspectingthe interference figure. It is also convenient for quicklyE175 82 (2010)2verifying centering, size, and uniform illumination of anaperture.lens, compounda lens compound of two or more separatepieces of glass or other optical material. These componentpieces or elements may or may not b
36、e cemented together. Acommon form of compound lens is a two-element objective,one element being a converging lens of crown glass and theother a diverging lens of flint glass. The combination ofsuitable glasses or other optical materials (plastics, minerals)properly ground and polished reduces aberra
37、tions normallypresent in a single lens.lens,eyethe lens in an eyepiece nearest to the eye.lens, negativea lens that is thicker on the edges than in thecenter, and which causes parallel light rays to diverge. Alsocalled diverging lens.magnificationa ratio of the size of an image to its corre-sponding
38、 object. This is usually determined by linear mea-surement.magnification, emptymagnification beyond which no newinformation is revealed.mechanical stagea device provided for adjusting the posi-tion of a specimen, usually by translation in two directions atright angles to each othermicrographa graphi
39、c reproduction of an object as formedby the microscope or equivalent optical instrument.micromanipulatora mechanical device for making smallmovements in order to manipulate microscopic probes.microradiography, contacta method of making micro-graphs be means of X rays. The specimen is placed close to
40、a fine-grained photographic emulsion at some distance fromthe X-ray source. The X rays pass through the specimen andthe differential adsorption and the scattering of the radiationis recorded by the emulsion. The resulting negative isexamined and photographed through a light microscope.microscopean i
41、nstrument capable of producing a magnifiedimage of a small object.microscope, electronan electron-optical device which pro-duces a magnified image of an object. Detail may berevealed by virtue of selective transmission, reflection, oremission of electrons by the object.microscope, field emissionan i
42、mage-forming device inwhich a strong electrostatic field causes cold emission ofelectrons from a sharply rounded point or from a specimenthat has been placed on that point. The electrons areaccelerated to a phosphorescent screen, or photographicfilm, giving a visible picture of the variation of emis
43、sionover the specimen surface.microscope, Greenougha stereoscopic mincorscope withpaired objectives, prisms, and eyepieces invented by J.Greenough. The name is sometimes incorrectly used for anystereoscopic microscope with paired objectives showingerect images.microscope, X-raya device for producing
44、 enlarged imagesof a specimen by means of X rays. Dioptric systems,analogous to light microscopes, are not available, but contactmicroradiography, point-projection, and reflection tech-niques (which see) provide practical alternatives.microscopicvery small, pertaining to a very small object orto its
45、 fine structure. A microscopic particle requires micro-scopical examination to be adequately visible.microscopicalpertaining to a microscope; pertaining to theuse of a microscope.microscopythe science of the interpretive use, and applica-tions of microscopes.micrurgythe use of a micromanipulator in
46、combination witha microscope.mirror, first or front surfacean optical mirror on which thereflecting surface is applied to the front surface of the mirrorinstead of to the back, that is, to the first surface of incidence.moire pattera pattern developed from interference or lightblocking, when grating
47、s, screens, or regularly spaced pat-terns are superimposed on one another.Nicol prisma prism, used for polarizing or analyzing light,made by cementing together, with Canada balsam, twopieces of calcite in such a way that the extraordinary rayfrom the first piece passes through the second piece while
48、 theordinary ray is reflected to the side into an absorbing layer ofblack paint. When two Nicol prisms are crossed, therefore,no light passes through.normalan imaginary line forming a right angle with thetangent to a curved surface at a particular point. It is used asa basis for determining angles o
49、f incidence, reflection, andrefraction.numerical aperturethe product of the lowest index ofrefraction in the object space multiplied by the sine of halfthe angular aperture of the objective.objectivethe primary magnifying system of a microscope.Asystem, generally of lenses, less frequently of mirrors,forming a real, inverted, and magnified image of the object.objective, fluoritean objective using the mineral fluorite inits construction. It is usually intermediate between achr
