1、Designation: E 2299 03Standard Guide forSensory Evaluation of Products by Children1This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 2299; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in p
2、arentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 This standard guide provides a framework for under-standing the issues relating to conducting sensory and marketresearch studies with children. I
3、t recommends and providesexamples for developing ethical, safe, and valid testing meth-ods. It focuses specifically on the concerns relevant to testingwith children from birth through preadolescence. The guideassumes that teens older than 15 years of age are generallycapable of performing sensory te
4、sts like adults, and therefore,all standard procedures used with adult subjects apply. The oneexception, however, is legal consent where parental permissionshould be obtained for anyone under 18 years of age.1.2 The guide will take into account the wide range ofchildrens physical, emotional, and cog
5、nitive levels of devel-opment. It will prove useful for developing tasks that areunderstandable to children. It recommends alternative modesfor children to communicate their opinions or perceptions backto the researcher, such as appropriate scales and measures.1.3 The ethical standard presented in t
6、his document shouldbe viewed as a minimum requirement for testing with minors.The safety and protection of children as respondents, as well asan attitude of respect for the value of their input should be ofprimary concern to the researcher.1.4 The considerations raised in this document may also beus
7、eful when testing with the elderly or with adults who havedevelopmental handicaps.1.5 This document is not intended to be a complete descrip-tion of reliable sensory testing techniques and methodologies.It focuses instead on special considerations for the specificapplication of sensory techniques wh
8、en testing with children. Itassumes knowledge of basic sensory and statistical analysistechniques.2. Referenced Documents2.1 ASTM Standards:E 253 Terminology Relating to Sensory Evaluation of Ma-terials and Products2E 1958 Guide for Sensory Claim Substantiation22.2 Other PublicationsManual 26 Sensor
9、y Testing Methods: Second Edition3STP 758 Guidelines for the Selection and Training of Sen-sory Panel Members33. Summary of GuideSpecific Applications for TestingWith Children3.1 The primary use of children in sensory studies is tomeasure the acceptability of foods, beverages, pharmaceuticalcolors a
10、nd flavors, and other products designed to be marketedto, consumed by, or used by children.3.2 In this sense, they answer many of the same questionsposed by effective sensory tests with adults. Children are usedto measure overall acceptance, liking, or preference betweensamples. The resulting inform
11、ation can be used to aid informulation changes or to choose between alternative products.3.3 Sensory testing with children can also be used toidentify unique characteristics or functions of products, such asthe effectiveness of childproof safety caps. Other applicationsinclude advertising research o
12、r identification of unfilled needsor wants as part of the product development process.3.4 Finally, some organizations are using children for basicresearch into the effectiveness of different scaling methods orsensory testing methodologies with children of varying ages.4. Significance and Use4.1 It i
13、s necessary and useful to test with children becausethey represent the real end-users for many products. Someproducts are developed specifically for children, and some aredual-purpose products that are intended for adults and children.Examples include: baby foods, diapers, ready-to-eat cereal,juices
14、, food or lunch kits, candy, toys, vitamins and otherpharmaceuticals, music and videos, interactive learning tools,and packaging.4.2 Children have influence over their parents purchasedecisions. They also have more money than in the past, and areresponsible for more of their own purchase decisions a
15、t anearlier age. As a result, many manufacturers advertise specifi-cally to children.4.3 Creating a product for children requires input fromchildren because their wants and needs differ from those of1This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E18 on SensoryEvaluation of Materials and Pro
16、ducts and is the direct responsibility of Subcom-mittee E18.05 on Sensory ApplicationsGeneral.Current edition approved June 10, 2003. Published July 2003.2Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 15.08.3Available from ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700,West Conshohocken, PA 19428, webs
17、ite: www.astm.org.1Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.adults. For example, they may differ from adults in preferencesor sensory acuity, or both, for sweetness, saltiness, carbonation,and texture. It is impossible to predi
18、ct the nature of thesedifferences without actual input from the intended targetaudience, and for that reason, testing with children continues togrow in the consumer product industry.5. Test Methods5.1 Skill Development and Appropriate Testing:5.1.1 Testing with children requires special consideratio
19、n oftheir language development, motor skills, and social andpsychological development. Every child is unique, and there isgreat variation within and across age groups. In developingappropriate test methodologies for children, it is more impor-tant to consider individual skill development than chrono
20、logi-cal age. Table 1 provides a general guideline for expectationsof skill level and appropriate evaluation techniques for eachage group. For each age group, there is corresponding textdiscussing special testing considerations.5.1.2 The researcher should keep in mind that there aremany children in
21、each age grouping who will fall below orabove these skill levels. It is the responsibility of the researcherto verify the ability of the children to complete the task asplanned, or to modify it as required to meet the needs of thechildren selected for testing. For example, while some secondgrade chi
22、ldren may be able to read and understand testinstructions, others will need assistance with that task.5.2 Infants (Birth to 18 months) and Toddlers (18 months to3 years):5.2.1 Recommended Evaluation Techniques and Types ofInformation:5.2.1.1 Information may be gathered from behavioral obser-vations,
23、 diaries, or records from an adult experimenter whomay be a trained evaluator, or the childs primary caregiver. Itis the adult who interprets infant or toddler responses. Withtoddlers, some verbal responses may also be obtained. Whenthe primary caregiver is involved, having an unbiased observerwatch
24、 the interaction between the child and adult is beneficial.Video taping the test allows greater flexibility and opportunityfor additional review.5.2.1.2 Information may include observations recorded be-fore, during, or after product use in either a clinical environ-ment or more natural usage situati
25、on (such as the home or agroup child care environment). Behavioral observations mayinclude hand and eye movement, facial expressions, time spentplaying, amount and time of consumption, or interaction withthe product. Diaries or records can be used to track intake orconsumption, frequency and duratio
26、n of use, length of attentionspan, or the condition of the product before, during and afteruse. In addition, an adult can fill out a simple questionnairewith facial scales as a way to mimic the childs response andaid in interpretation.5.2.2 Cautions:5.2.2.1 Due to the limited language, attention spa
27、n, andmotor skills, the length of the testing session and number ofproducts evaluated must be limited. Input from the primarycaregiver as to the amount and length of exposure is critical.Consideration may be given to exposing the caregiver to theproducts prior to the test as a way to screen and elim
28、inate alarge number of samples. This technique also allows thecaregiver to increase their comfort level about exposing theirchild to the product.5.2.2.2 Caution should be used when the caregiver is askedto make a subjective judgement for the young child. Primarycaregivers, especially parents, may re
29、spond from personalpreferences, interpreting for the child their own personalopinion. At other times, primary caregivers or parents mayunknowingly establish a pattern of responses that they believewould present their child in a positive manner to the evaluator.An option to reduce potential biases in
30、cludes providing anenvironment that fosters honest responses (for example, field-ing through a third party agency or non-company identifiedfacility, indicating the importance of the data, or how the datawill be used, or both). Another option is to have the parent feedthe child first, record the chil
31、ds response and then the parentmay be instructed to taste and record their own response.5.2.2.3 Whether the observer is the primary caregiver, anexperimenter or trained evaluator, adult interpretation of ob-servational responses are subjective and may be affected byfactors unrelated to the product i
32、n question. For example,physical discomfort on the part of the child, such as tirednessor illness, may result in behaviors such as refusing to eat orpushing products away with hands. An unbiased observer orvideotaping the session, or both, in conjunction with parentalinput can aid in cases where int
33、erpretation of a response isunclear. Multiple exposures and repeated evaluations may alsobe helpful.5.3 Pre-School (Age 3 to 5 years old):5.3.1 Recommended Evaluation Techniques and Types ofInformation:5.3.1.1 Behavioral observations and the diaries used withinfants and toddlers are also appropriate
34、 with children 3 to 5years old. In addition, preschool children can begin usingverbal skills to communicate their responses about the prod-ucts. One-on-one interviews in the presence of a primarycaregiver, paired comparisons, or limited use of sorting andmatching techniques using pictures are approp
35、riate.5.3.1.2 Keeping in mind individual differences, many chil-dren in this age group can perform simple tasks that providequantitative results. Suggested quantitative methods for pre-school children include using facial scales to measure liking,paired preference, and preference ranking techniques.
36、5.3.2 Cautions:5.3.2.1 Children 3 to 5 years old exhibit a wide range ofdevelopmental skills. This age group has relatively limited finemotor skills, attention span, verbal and cognitive skills. Thesecharacteristics, combined with possible emotional dependence,require that testing protocols be kept
37、simple and non-threatening.5.3.2.2 Careful consideration must be given to testing loca-tion. Suggested options include testing in central location,educational, play or social settings. Familiar settings such aspreschools, churches, synagogues, or home settings may beideal. Both controlled and relaxe
38、d environments offer advan-tages and disadvantages that the researcher must consider.Generally, a relaxed atmosphere encourages more typicalbehavior when testing products with young children than aE2299032TABLE1SummaryofSkillsandBehaviorsofChildrenandTeensSkill/BehaviorInfantBirthto18monthsToddler18
39、monthsto3yearsPre-School3to5yearsBeginningReaders5to8yearsPre-Teen8to12yearsTeenage12to15yearsLanguageVerbal,Reading/WrittenLanguage,VocabularyPre-Verbal.Relyonfacialexpressions.Cannotread.Cannotwrite.Usesounds,veryfewwords.Beginningtovocalize,adultinterpretationstillrequired.Cannotread.Cannotwrite.
40、Earlywordusagedeveloping.Earlylanguagedevelopment.Canobservefacialexpressions,respondtoquestionsandpictures.Generallyreadingandwritingskillsarenotpresent.Moderatelydevelopedverbalandvocabularyskills;cognitiveskillsincrease.Earlyreadingandwritingskillsvarygreatlyatthisage.Adultassistanceisadvised.Inc
41、reasinglyverbalself-expressionimproves.Readingandwrittenlanguageskillsincreaserapidlyandaresufficientformostself-administeredtasksattheupperlimitsofthisagegroup.Generallystronglanguageandvocabularyskills.Readingandwrittenlanguageskillscontinuetoincrease.Adultlevelinmostrespects.AttentionSpanGagedbye
42、yecontactandbodilymovement.Brightcolors,sound,andmovementscaptureattention.Gagedbyeyecontactorinvolvementwithtask,bodilymovement.Brightcolors,sound,andmovementscaptureattention.Limited,butincreasing.Brightcolors,movementareeffective.Limitedbyunderstandingoftaskandinterestlevel,challenge.Limittasksto
43、15min.Attentionspanisincreasing,butholdinginterestiscriticalandsometimesdifficult.Takingtestsisafamiliaractivity.Similartoadults,involvementandinterestsubjecttopeerpressure.ReasoningLimitedtopainandpleasure.Limited,butconceptof“no”becomingafactor.Definitepreferencesbegintoemerge.Limited,butbeginning
44、tobeabletoverbalizewhatislikedandwhatisnot.Developingwithincreasedlearning,cause/effectconcepts.Fullabilityforunderstandingandreasoning,capableofdecisionmaking.Reasoningskillsarefullydevelopedandsimilartoadults.DecisionMakingDonotmakecomplexdecisions.Donotmakecomplexdecisions,but“yes”/“no”canbedecis
45、ive.Abilitytochoosebegins.Limited,butconceptsofwhatislikedandwhatisnotstrengthen.Abletochooseonethingoveranother.Abilitytodecideisincreasing,butinfluenceofadultapprovalisevident.Capableofcomplexdecisions,peerinfluencesafactor.Fullycapableofadultdecisionprocesses,subjecttopeerinfluences.Understanding
46、ScalesDonotunderstandscales.Donotunderstandscales.Understandingofsimplescalesbeginning,sortingoridentificationtasksmoreeffective.Scaleunderstandingincreasing,simpleisbest,useeasyvocabulary.Capableofunderstandingscalingconceptswithadequateinstruction.Similartoadults.MotorSkillsPossesssomegrossmotorsk
47、ills,nofinemotorskillsRapidgainsingrossmotorskills,finemotorskillsstilllimited.Developmentofgrossandfinemotorskillsincreasing.Grossmotorskillsdeveloped,fineskillsbecomingmorerefined.Handtoeyeandotherfinemotorskillsdeveloped.Similartoadults.RecommendedEvaluationTechniquesBehavioralObservationsDiaries
48、 ConsumptionordurationmeasurementsPrevious,plus:PairedComparison SortingandMatchingLimitedPreferenceRanking One-on-oneinterviewsPrevious,plus:SimpleattributeratingsLikingscalespictorialorsimplewordscales.GroupdiscussionsConcepttestingPrevious,plusmoreabstractreasoningtasks.Hedonicscales.Simpleattrib
49、utescalingandratings.Capableofalladultevaluationtechniques.AdultInvolvementPrimaryCaregiverTrainedObserverExperimenterExperimenterorInterviewer.Generallyabletohandleself-administeredtasks.Adultparticipationnotrequired,unlessappropriatetoevaluationtechnique.E2299033clinical setting, although a controlled setting may sometimesbe necessary for test specific reasons.5.3.2.3 Some children in this age group are uncomfortablewith unfamiliar adults. A suggestion to ease their apprehensionmay be to include a warm-up period to introduce the child tothe researcher and task in the presence
