1、Bioremediationin Marine Oil Spills2004 editionGUIDANCE DOCUMENT FOR DECISION MAKING ANDIMPLEMENTATION OF BIOREMEDIATION IN MARINE OIL SPILLSBINTERNATIONALMARITIMEORGANIZATIONLondon, 2004Publishedin2004bytheINTERNATIONALMARITIMEORGANIZATION4AlbertEmbankment,LondonSE17SRPrintedintheUnitedKingdombyTheB
2、athPress,Bath24681097531ISBN92-801-4187-2IMOPUBLICATIONSalesnumber:I584ECopyright#InternationalMaritimeOrganization2004AcknowledgementsPictures1.3-1,1.3-3,1.3-4,1.4-5and4.1-2arereproducedbypermissionofDFOCanada.Pictures1.3-2and1.4-2arereproducedbypermissionofEnvironmentCanada.Picture1.3-5isreproduce
3、dbypermissionofAEATechnologyEngland.Pictures1.3-6,1.3-7,1.4-1,1.4-4,3.3-1,3.3-2,3.3-3,3.3-4,4.1-1and4.2-1arereproducedbypermissionofCEDRE.Picture1.4-3isreproducedbypermissionofTOTALFrance.Picture2.4-1isreproducedbypermissionofIndianOceanCommission.PictureA3-1isreproducedbypermissionofMuseumnationald
4、histoirenaturelle,Paris,France.Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeanswithoutpriorpermissioninwritingfromtheInternationalMaritimeOrganization.Publishedin2004bytheINTERNATIONALMARITIMEORGANIZATION4AlbertEmbankment,LondonSE17S
5、R(ISBN92-801-4187-2)Electronicedition:2005IMOPUBLICATIONSalesnumber:E584ECopyright#InternationalMaritimeOrganization2005umAllrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeanswithoutpriorpermissioninwritingfromtheInternationalMaritimeOrga
6、nization.ttContentsPagePreface 1Chapter 1 Introduction to bioremediation1.1 Whatisbioremediation? 31.2 Whyusebioremediation?. 3Table1: Prosandconsofbioremediation. 41.3 Howbioremediationworks 41.4 Whatarethemainbioremediationstrategies? 101.5 Scopeforapplicationofbioremediation . 14Chapter 2 Conting
7、ency planning2.1 Introduction 152.2 Bioremediationwithintheoverallshorelineclean-upresponsestrategy 152.3 Selectionofsitesforbioremediation 162.4 Mapping. 162.5 Logistics,identificationoftherequirementsfortheimplementationofbioremediation 182.6 Fundingandclaims . 182.7 Training. 182.8 Healthandsafet
8、y . 19Chapter 3 Decision making3.1 Introduction 213.2 When,whereandhowtousebioremediation. 213.3 Guidanceonthedecision-makingprocess. 21Decisionprocessflowchart 22Table2: Shorelinetypesandnaturalcleaningtimes 24Table3: Criteriaforassessingoxygenlimitation 273.4 Conclusionondecisionmaking 28iiiChapte
9、r 4 Bioremediation guidelines implementation4.1 Bioremediationtreatmentoptions 29Table4: Guidelinesfortheapplicationofbioremediationproductsfornutrientenrichment 314.2 Monitoring. 33Appendix 1Measurementandanalysisofhydrocarbonsinmarinesediments 37Appendix 2Indicativebiodegradabilityofsomepetroleumo
10、ilproducts 40Appendix 3Assessingthebiodegradationpotentialofanoilspill . 41Appendix 4Estimationofsedimentpermeability. 44Appendix 5Assessingoxygencontent 45Appendix 6Assessingnitrogenconcentration . 46Appendix 7Basicrecommendationsforthesamplingplan 48ivBioremediationinMarineOilSpillsPrefaceMajorinc
11、identssuchastheAmocoCadiz(France,1978),theExxonValdez(USA, 1989), theBraer(UK, 1993), theSeaEmpress(UK, 1996), theErika(France,1999)andthePrestige(Spain,2002)haveprovidedthestimulusfor the development of alternative response techniques to tackle oilpollution both at sea and on the shoreline. One suc
12、h technique isbioremediation. Although recognized as a potential response option 30years ago, it is receiving renewed attention as more environmentallyacceptableclean-upmethodsaresoughtandasnewclaimsofthepotencyof bioremediation are made. During the second International Oil SpillResearch and Develop
13、ment Forum of the International Maritime Organ-ization(IMO)in1995,bioremediationwasidentifiedasatopicwarrantingpriority research to develop operational guidelines. An internationalworking group chaired by Francois Merlin of Centre de documentationde recherche et dexperimentations sur les pollutions
14、accidentelles deseaux (CEDRE), France and Kenneth Lee, Fisheries and Oceans Canadawasformedtoaddressthisissue.The public often sees bioremediation as the environmentally friendlyresponse to an oil spill since it converts the oil into harmless productssuchascarbondioxideandwater.Itspotentialhasbeende
15、monstratedforanumberofyears,asithasbeenusedsuccessfullytoenhancethenaturaldegradation of oil in ex-situ methods as landfarming, composting andbiopiling.The benefit of using bioremediation is dependent upon fulfilment of anumber of specific criteria. The scientific community is currentlyresearching m
16、any of these criteria in order to understand more fully theprocessesinvolvedandtoimprovethemethodsused.Giventheprominencethatbioremediationhasgainedinoilspillresponse,potential users need guidelines to help identify scenarios where thistechnique could be environmentally beneficial if implemented int
17、o localcontingency plans. While there is little or no scientific evidence to showthatcarefulapplicationofbioremediationstrategyhascausedanyharmtothe environment, there is a need to be aware of situations in whichbioremediationwouldbeunsuitable.Withaviewtoprovidingresponderswithasetofpracticalguideli
18、nes,the47thsessionoftheMarineEnvironmentProtectionCommittee(MEPC)ofIMOdecidedthataguidancedocumentforbioremediationuseshouldbedevelopedandpublishedbyIMO.Franceagreedtoactastheleadcountrythrough CEDRE. During a workshop of oil spill response experts andbioremediationspecialistsheldinBrest,France,from
19、17to19April2001,the first draft of the guidelines was prepared. This Working Group1completed a final draft document by the summer of 2001, and a shortversionwassubmittedandacceptedforpublicationintheIMOManualonOilPollution,asachapteronbioremediation.Thefinaldraftdocumentsfordecision-makingandimpleme
20、ntationofbioremediationinmarineoilspillssubmittedbyFrance(MEPC47/5/2andMEPC47/5/INF.9)werereviewedduring the 47th session of MEPC by the OPRC Working Group. TheCommitteeapprovedpublicationofthedocumentssubmitted.Theaimoftheseguidelinesistoprovideuserswithclearcriteriatoenablethem to evaluate the cir
21、cumstances in which to consider the use ofbioremediationforshorelinecleanup.Theseguidelinesarenotintendedtoaddress the treatment of waste generated at oil spills. They contain asummary of the most important bioremediation processes and decision-making criteria. The various strategies are discussed a
22、nd some sugges-tionsastohowtomonitortheeffectivenessandcheckforpossibleadverseconsequencesofthetechniquearemade.Suggestionsforfurtherreadingare also provided for readers who wish to study this subject in greaterdetail.The Marine Environment Protection Committee of IMO expressed itsappreciationto:*th
23、eGovernmentofFranceandCEDREforhavingtakentheleadtohosttheworkshoptoformulatetheguidelines;*WorkingGroupmemberswhocontributedtothepreparationoftheGuidanceDocument:AnneBasseres(TOTAL,France)DavidBedborough(Consultant,UnitedKingdom)KevinColcomb(MCA,UnitedKingdom)DarkoDomovic(REMPEC,Malta)MichelGirin(CE
24、DRE,France)KennethLee(DFOFisheriesand*Externalreviewers:AlbertVenosa(EPA,UnitedStatesofAmerica)RebeccaHoff(NOAA,UnitedStatesofAmerica)EzioAmato(ICRAM,Italy)RichardSantner(ITOPF,UnitedKingdom)RogerPrince(Exxon/Mobil,UnitedStatesofAmerica)DavidFritz(BPAmoco,UnitedStatesofAmerica)BioremediationinMarine
25、OilSpills2Chapter1Introductiontobioremediation1.1 What is bioremediation?Bioremediation is the use of biological processesto accelerate the removal of contaminantsfrom the environmentIn the above definition the application of bioremediation strategies isassociated with the stimulation of pollutant b
26、iodegradation. Biodegrada-tionisbasedonmetabolicprocessesbywhichmicro-organisms,primarilybacteria, break down a wide range of organic contaminants, such as oil,that are susceptible to microbial degradation. Enhanced ecosystemrecoveryisaconsequenceorgoalofthepracticeofbioremediation.In these guidelin
27、es the term bioremediation includes those techniquesused on site (e.g., biostimulation, bioaugmentation, phytoremediation,monitored natural attenuation, composting/biopiling) and the extensionstobioremediationthatcanbeappliedthroughcombinationwithphysicalorchemicalclean-upmethods(surf-washing,surfac
28、tantaddition).1.2 Why use bioremediation?There is no single response technique that is suitable for all spillcircumstances. Therefore, a contingency plan should include consider-ationofallcurrentclean-upmethods(seechapter2).A principal advantage of bioremediation over more conventional physicaland c
29、hemical methods is that it can result in the removal of thecontaminant from an environment by the enhancement of naturalbiodegradation processes by conversion of contaminants to benignsubstances such as water and carbon dioxide. Furthermore, it canenhance the rate of habitat recovery, for example, b
30、y favouring plantgrowthinwetlands.Assuch,itismorelikelytobeacceptabletothepublicthanthemoreinvasivechemicalorphysicaltechniques.Bioremediation,likeallothermethods,hasadvantagesanddisadvantages.Table 1 shows the pros and cons of using bioremediation in comparisonwithconventionalresponsetechniques.3Ta
31、ble1ProsandconsofbioremediationPros ConsOil-degradingmicro-organismsareubiquitous(presenteverywhere)andthereforebioremediationcanbeusedonarangeofshorelinetypes.Thereisevidenceofsuccessfulbioremediationoperationsbasedontheadditionofchemicaladditives(e.g.nutrientsandoildispersants)and/orhabitatalterat
32、ions(e.g.surf-washingand/ortilling).Shorelinebioremediationstrategiesbasedonnutrientenrichmentwillnotworkeffectivelyatseaduetotheextentofdilutionthatwouldoccurinanopensystem.Relativelynon-intrusivemethodforfinalpolishing.Notrecommendedforusefortheremovalofbulkoil.Anaturalprocess.Doesnotgeneratelarge
33、volumesofsecondarywaste.Dependentonprevailingenvironmentalconditionsandthenatureoftheoil(i.e.limitationsonheavyfueloils).Mayenhancedispersionofoildroplets.Generallylesslabour-intensiveandmorecost-effectivethantraditionalclean-upmethodsbasedonphysicalremoval.Takeslongerthanotherphysical/chemicaltechn
34、iques.Hasreceivedapositivepublicresponse.Someconcernsremaininregardstopotentialadversehealtheffectsassociatedwiththereleaseofbioremediationagents,particularlybioaugmentationproducts,andthoseresultingfromthemetabolicby-productsofbiodegradation.1.3 How bioremediation worksMicro-organisms metabolize (i
35、.e. biodegrade) organic compounds forenergyandasourceofcarbonforcellgrowth(i.e.productionofbiomass).Otherelements,suchasnitrogenandphosphorus,arerequiredaswellascarbon for the synthesis of the molecules of life (e.g. proteins, enzymes,amino acids and lipids). Organic contaminants that are susceptibl
36、e tobiodegradation include oils (e.g. petrol, diesel, heating oil, crude oil,lubricants, and some fuel oils), Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons(PAHs), oxygenated hydrocarbons (e.g. glycols, surfactants, detergents),4BioremediationinMarineOilSpillspesticides, BTEX components (benzene, toluene, ethylb
37、enzene, xylene),solvents,chlorinatedsolvents,amines,anilines,andevensomeexplosives.Microbial metabolism of organic contaminants, including oil, may followdifferent mechanisms according to the environmental conditions. Forexample, under aerobic conditions (i.e., in the presence of oxygen) manyorganic
38、 molecules are eventually converted to carbon dioxide, water andmicrobialcellmass(biomass)asillustratedbythefollowingformula:1kgHCa 2.6kgO2 0.07kgN 0.007kgP+1.6kgCO2 1kgH2O 1kgbiomassHCa=HydrocarbonUnderanaerobicconditions(i.e.,intheabsenceofoxygen),biodegradationisusuallymuchslowerandthereforeofles
39、soperationalinterest.1.3-1:Bacteriaatwork(DFOCanada)1.3.1 MechanismsofbiodegradationBiodegradation will occur, along with other weathering processes,immediatelyaftertheoilenterstheenvironment.Petroleumhydrocarbonscanbedividedintofourmajorclasses(andsubclasses)whosepotentialforbiodegradation is highl
40、y variable. They can be listed in order ofbiodegradability:*alkanes(orsaturates)*aromatics,includingPolycyclicAromaticHydrocarbons(PAHs)5Chapter1Introductiontobioremediation*asphaltenes*resinsorpolarcompoundsAlkanesaredegradedrapidlyinthepresenceofoxygenbyawiderangeofmicro-organisms. Alkanes can be
41、subdivided into normal paraffins(straight-chain compounds, n-alkanes), branched-chain saturates andcyclic saturates (or naphthenes or alicyclics). In general, the straight- orbranched-chain saturates may be degraded relatively quickly andcompletely(degradationbeginswithstraight-chainedcompounds)rela
42、tivetothecycliccompounds.Aromatics are compounds with one or more aromatic rings or benzenerings; they can also have substituents (e.g., benzenes, substitutedbenzenes,two-,three-,four-andevenfive-ringedPAHs).Althoughtherateof biodegradation of aromatic hydrocarbons is slower than for alkanes,relativ
43、ely rapid degradation rates have also been observed in aerobicconditions. In general, light compounds (1 or 2 rings) degrade quite well(andquickly),heavycompounds(with5or6rings)arehighlyresistanttodegradation. In terms of ecological significance, the mechanism ofbiodegradation is of interest since s
44、ome aromatic compounds tend to bedegradedintolesstoxiccomponents.For asphaltenes and resins, biodegradation has been shown to be slow(and always incomplete) in comparison to the other hydrocarboncomponents in crude oil. Moreover, both asphaltenes and resins maycontain compounds that are the by-produ
45、cts of crude oil degradation.Although these chemicals make up a small proportion of petroleumproducts,theyareextremelypersistent.1.3.2 FactorsaffectingbioremediationThe success of bioremediation is heavily influenced by the nature of thecontaminated environment and the interactions between micro-org
46、an-isms. As a biological process, factors such as extreme temperatures, lowdissolvedoxygen(DO)andlownutrientconcentrationsthatimpactmicro-organism growth can limit bioremediation. Such factors should be takeninto account in any decision-making process regarding the use ofbioremediation,describedinch
47、apter3.Temperature: Biodegradation rates are influenced by temperature. As aresult, temperature is often a limiting factor to bioremediation in colderclimates. Low temperature also increases oil viscosity, thereby reducingbioavailability and volatilization of the toxic short-chain alkanes andretardi
48、ng the onset of biodegradation. However, Arctic studies have alsodemonstratedthatadaptationisamajorfactorthatinfluencesthenaturalratesofmicrobialactivityinthenaturalenvironment.Hence,suppressionofbiodegradationactivityhasonlybeenreportedtooccurattemperatureconditionsclosetofreezing.6Bioremediationin
49、MarineOilSpills1.3-2:Coldenvironment,ArcticSvalbard(SINTEFNorway)Dissolved Oxygen (DO): Appropriate DO concentrations are vital forbioremediation to occur. The surface layers in beach environments aregenerally sufficiently oxygenated, as DO concentrations are usuallyelevatedincoastalareasduetowaveactionalongtheshoreandprimaryproductivity in surface waters. However, reduced oxygen availability is ofgreater concern for shorelines with fine-grained sediments, such assaltmarshes or mudflats. Here, mass transfer of oxygen may not besufficienttoreplenishoxygenconsumedbymicrobialmetab
