1、 GEOP Gas Engineering and Operating Practices A Series by the Operating Section The American Gas Association Volume V UTILIZATION Book U-1 Residential/Commercial The American Gas Association Arlington, Virginia Legal Notice The Gas Engineering and Operating Practices Series was prepared by the Ameri
2、can Gas Association (A.G.A.), its member companies and other individuals and groups with an interest in the natural gas industry. Neither A.G.A., its member companies, employees, nor any person acting on their behalf: a. Makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respect to the a
3、ccuracy, completeness, or usefulness of the information contained in this series, or that the use of any apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this series may not infringe privately owned rights; or b. Assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or for damages or personal injuries resulti
4、ng from the use of any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this series, or for violation of any federal, state or municipal regulation with which it may conflict. c. Reference to trade names or specific commercial products, methods, commodities or services in this series does not
5、 represent or constitute an endorsement, recommendation or favoring by A.G.A. or any other person of the specific commercial product, commodity or service. d. Nothing contained in this series is to be construed as granting any right, by implication or otherwise, for the manufacture, sale, or use in
6、connection with any method, apparatus, or product covered by letters patent, nor as insuring anyone against liability for infringement of letters patent. Copyright 1994 by the American Gas Association, A.G.A All rights reserved. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 85-70460 ISBN 0-87257-010-X A.
7、G.A. Catalog Number XY9202 5C12.94 Printed in the United States of America CONTENTS FIGURES AND TABLES . xiii PREFACE. xxi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS xxiii CHAPTER 1. COMPARISON OF ALTERNATE ENERGIES Major Competitive Energies . 1 Natural Gas . 1 Electricity . 1 Oil . 2 Coal 2 Unit Energy Costs . 2 Fuel Utiliz
8、ation Efficiencies 3 Heating and Cooling Equipment 4 Full Cycle Efficiency . 5 Efficiencies of Specific Appliance Types . 5 Central Space-Heating Equipment . 6 Electric Heat Pumps 11 Water Heaters . 11 Ranges 12 Clothes Dryers 13 Commercial Food-Preparation Equipment 13 Life-Cycle Cost Analyses . 15
9、 Environmental Comparisons 18 Cogeneration . 21 CHAPTER 2. INTERCHANGEABILITY Introduction . 23 iv GAS UTILIZATION Background 21 Present Status . 24 Basic Considerations 25 Variations in Fuel Gases 25 Appliance Condition 28 Performance . 29 Existing Methods . 33 Group I-Single-Index or Thermal-Input
10、 Methods 33 Group II-Multiple-Indices Method . 39 Group III-Diagrammatic Methods 46 Group IV-Other Methods . 50 Current Standards Coverage . 51 Domestic 51 Europe 51 Work in Progress 54 Standards 54 Comparison of ANSI Task Force Work with European Standards 56 International . 56 Research 60 United S
11、tates 60 United Kingdom . 60 CHAPTER 3. CONSUMER PIPING Introduction 69 Background 69 Recent Developments . 70 The National Fuel Gas Code 71 Applicability Exclusions . 72 Related Standards 73 Piping Components . 74 Materials . 74 Joining Methods . 76 Design 78 Sizing . 81 Installation 82 Testing 86
12、Appliance Connection 90 Types of Connectors . 90 Construction . 91 CONTENTS v CHAPTER 4. Installation of Gas Equipment General 93 “Approved“ Equipment . 93 Type of Gases 94 Safety Shutoff Devices for Unlisted LP-Gas Equipment Used Indoors . 94 Use of Air or Oxygen Under Pressure 94 Flammable Vapors
13、95 Installation in Residential Garages . 95 Installation in Commercial Garages . 95 Installation in Aircraft Hangers 95 Venting of Flue Gases 96 Extra Device or Attachment . 96 Adequate Capacity of Piping 96 Avoiding Strain on Gas Piping . 96 Gas Appliance Pressure Regulators 96 Combination of Equip
14、ment . 97 Installation Instructions . 97 Protection of Outdoor Equipment . 97 Accessibility and Clearance . 97 Accessibility for Service . 97 Permissible Temperatures/Clearances Related to Combustible Materials . 98 Air for Combustion and Ventilation 98 General 98 Louvers and Grilles . 102 Specially
15、 Engineered Installations 102 Equipment on Roofs 102 General 102 Access to Equipment 102 Additional Provisions . 103 Connecting Equipment 103 Sediment Trap . 104 Electrical Connections . 104 Ignition and Control Devices 104 Circuits 104 Continuous Power . 105 Room-Temperature Thermostats 105 Install
16、ation of Specific Equipment 105 Household Cooking Appliances . 105 Built-In Household Cooking Appliances . 106 Open-Top Broiler Units 107 vi GAS UTILIZATION Water Heaters . 108 Room Heaters . 110 Central-Heating Boilers and Furnaces . 112 Wall Furnaces 116 Floor Furnaces . 117 Duct Furnaces 121 Conv
17、ersion Burners . 122 Unit Heaters . 123 Infrared Heaters . 124 Equipment on Roofs 125 Clothes Dryers . 126 Domestic Incinerators 128 Commercial/Industrial Incinerators . 130 Refrigerators 130 Hot Plates and Laundry Stoves 131 Food-Service Equipment, Floor Mounted . 131 Food-Service Equipment, Counte
18、r Appliances 133 Commercial Baking and Roasting Ovens 134 Air Conditioning Equipment 134 Connection of Gas Engines 135 Illuminating Appliances . 137 Industrial Air Heaters . 138 Industrial Appliances . 140 Compressed Natural Gas Vehicular Fuel Systems 140 Decorative Appliances . 141 Direct Make-Up A
19、ir Heaters 143 Outdoor Cooking Appliances 144 Pool Heaters . 144 Sauna Heaters . 145 CHAPTER 5. VENTING AND VENTILATION Introduction 149 Background . 149 Recent Developments 150 Basic Considerations 150 Types of Air Supply . 150 Types of Venting 151 Condensation and Corrosion 166 System Components a
20、nd Configurations . 169 System Configurations . 171 Sizing . 177 CONTENTS vii Standards Coverage . 177ANSI Standards Z21 and Z83 178National Fuel Gas Code 182Other Codes 182Definitions . 184CHAPTER 6. COMFORT HEATING AND COOLING General 195Certification and Installation Standards 195Ratings of Heati
21、ng Boilers 197Residential Heating . 198ANSI Approved Requirements . 198Sizing of Heating Equipment 199Construction Standards . 211Application and Installation 212Steam Boilers 212Radiators, Convectors and Finned-Tube Unites . 214Steam Heating Systems 216Hot-Water Boilers . 217Hot-Water Space Heaters
22、 218Floor Furnaces 223Vented Wall Furnaces . 223Room Heaters . 224Direct -Vented Appliances 224Gas-Conversion Burners . 225Estimation of Energy Consumption 225High-Efficiency Equipment 230Commercial and Industrial Space Heating 233Boilers . 233Unit Heaters 239Duct Furnaces . 241Enclosed Furnaces 241
23、Infrared Radiant Heaters . 243Heating of Make-Up Air . 250Fuel Requirements 255Residential and Commercial Cooling 256Vapor-Compression System . 264Design of Residential Systems . 269Design of Commercial Systems 276viii GAS UTILIZATION CHAPTER 7. WATER HEATERS Introduction . 279Background . 279Presen
24、t Status 280Standards Coverage 280Appliance Standards . 281Accessory Standards . 282Installation Standards 282Miscellaneous Standards . 283Domestic Appliances . 283Principles of Operations 283Design . 283Construction . 287Operation . 295New Developments . 302Commercial Water Heaters . 303Operation,
25、Design, and Construction 303Performance 304Sizing 305New Developments . 305Definitions . 308CHAPTER 8. HOUSEHOLD COOKING APPLIANCES Types of Appliances 311Evolution . 311Free-Standing Range . 311Slide-In Range 311Built-In Range . 312Eye-Level Range . 314Combination Bungalow Range/Heater . 314Range S
26、election . 315Installation Factors 315Capacity 315Convenience . 315Design Factors . 315Burners 315Manual Valves and Orifices . 318Ignition Devices 320Thermostatic Controls and Oven Systems 323Installation . 329Basic Requirements 329CONTENTS ix Venting and Combustion Air . 330Operating Standards 331T
27、op Burners . 331Oven Heating Capacity and Distribution 331Broiler Temperature . 331Appliance Surface Temperature . 331Handle and Knob Temperatures . 331Safety Standards . 332CHAPTER 9. COMMERCIAL KITCHEN EQUIPMENT Cooking Equipment 333General Performance and Construction 333Ranges 334Baking and Roas
28、ting Ovens . 337Broilers . 341Deep Fat Fryers 344Steam Cooking Appliances 346Tilted Braising Pans . 349Counter Appliances 350Heat Requirements 351Water Heating Equipment . 353Self-Contained Storage Water Heaters . 353Automatic Instantaneous Water Heaters . 356Circulating Tank Water Heaters . 356Stea
29、m Boiler and Storage Tank 356Steam Boiler for Instantaneous Water Heating 358Booster Heaters . 359Water Heating Systems . 360Separate-Heating System 360Booster-Heating System . 360Dual-Temperature Systems . 361Water Piping . 362Sizing 363Sanitation and Maintenance 366Ventilation . 367Fire Protection
30、 384Insurance Rates . 384National Fire Protection Association 387Fire Extinguishing Systems 387CHAPTER 10. CLOTHES DRYER Background 391x GAS UTILIZATION History. 391 Sales . 392 Energy Consumption 392 Design . 393 Types of Dryers 393 Operations 393 Components 393 Blowers and Vents . 403 Operation 40
31、3 ANSI Construction and Performance Standards . 403 DOE Energy-Consumption Test . 405 Installation 406 Servicing . 407 CHAPTER 11. MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT Pressure Regulators . 409 Classification . 409 Venting 410 ANSI Tests 411 Cooking Grills 412 General . 412 Types . 412 Operation and Maintenance
32、412 Performance Requirements . 412 Incinerators . 413 History . 413 Principles of Incineration . 413 Types of Waste . 414 Classification . 414 Effluents 414 Domestic Units . 417 Commercial and Industrial Units . 418 Incinerating Toilets . 418 Gas Illumination 418 General 418 Incandescent Gas-Light M
33、antles 420 Gas-Light Burners 421 Light Output and Lighting Efficiency 422 Automatic Controls 422 Service Experience . 422 Open-Flame and Ornamental Types 423 CONTENTS xi Installation 423Domestic Gas Refrigerators . 424History . 424The Single-Pressure Absorption System 424Operating Fluids . 426Design
34、 Factors 427Coefficient of Performance . 428Safety Devices for Hot-Water Supply Systems 429General 429Gum and Dust Filters 431CHAPTER 12. BURNER DESIGN General Factors 433Burner Characteristics . 433Burner Material . 434Combustion Air . 434Atmospheric Burners . 434Types of Atmospheric Burners . 435O
35、perating Characteristics 439Burner Injection Systems 446Gas Orifices 449Power Burners . 456Types . 456Pulse Combustion Burners 457General 457Operations . 457Direct Venting . 458Pilot Burners 459General 459Reliability 460APPENDIX A: ARI Guide for Estimating Annual Operating Cost of a Central Air Cond
36、itioner or Heat Pump 463APPENDIX B: Describing and Evaluating the Performance of Water Heaters 473APPENDIX C: European Standard CEN-EN437 . 485APPENDIX D: Definitions (pertaining particularly to Chapter 3) 525xii GAS UTILIZATION APPENDIX E: Publications Referenced in the National Fuel Gas Code . 535
37、APPENDIX F: Sizing and Capacities of Gas Piping 539APPENDIX G: Suggested Methods for Checking for Leaks 549APPENDIX H: Climactic Conditions for the United States and Canada 553APPENDIX I: Typical Thermal Properties of Common Building and Insulating Materials . 569APPENDIX J: Overall Coefficients of
38、Heat Transmission of Fenestration Products 575APPENDIX K: Average Degree Days for Cities in the United States and Canada . 579REFERENCES 587INDEX . 599TABLES AND FIGURES TABLES 1. Representative Average Unit Cost of Energy for Five Residential Energy Sources (1992) 3 2. Energy Trajectory Efficiencie
39、s . 6 3. Minimum AFUE Standards for Gas-Fueled Central Heating Equipment 10 4. Minimum Efficiency Standards for Electric Heat Pumps. 11 5. Energy and Cost Ratios-Gas : Electric . 14 6. Equipment and Installation Costs for New Residential Heating and Cooling Systems-Single Family Units 17 7. Life-Cyc
40、le Costs for Three HVAC Systems . 18 8. Full Trajectory Emissions Attributable to Residential Space-Heating and Base-Load Energy Usage (existing powerplant, conventional appliances) . 19 9. Full Trajectory Emissions Attributable to Residential Space-Heating and Base-Load Energy Usage (new powerplant
41、, high efficiency appliances) 20 10. Gases and Burner Types Used in the Development of the Existing Methods . 34 11. Scope of Existing Prediction Methods . 37 12. Gas Interchangeability Calculation Sheet 42 13. Natural Gases Considered Interchangeable by the SRG Method 50 14. Test Gases of Family 2
42、in EN437, 1993 53 15. Proposed Compositions and Characteristics of ANSI-Z21 Test Gases . 55 16. A.G.A. Indices for the Test Gases of European Family 2 59 17. Group H Test Gases 63 18. Equivalent Factors for Hydrocarbons 67 19. Support of Gas Piping and Tubing . 83 xiii xiv GAS UTILIZATION 20. Length
43、 of Gas Line Requiring Purging for Servicing or Modification . 89 21. Length of Piping Requiring Purging Before Placing in Operation 89 22. Minimum Capacities for Gas Connectors . 92 23. Unused 24. Clearances to Combustible Materials-Furnaces and Boilers in Rooms that are Large Relative to the Size
44、of the Equipment 113 25. Reduction of Clearances with Specified Forms of Protection . 114 26. Clearances for Unlisted Outdoor Open-Flame IlluminatingAppliances 137 27. Minimum Free-Opening Area of Chimney Damper Vs. Chimney Height and Appliance Input Rating 142 28. Air Requirements for Sample House
45、. 153 29. Climatic Conditions for the United States . 200 30. Climatic Conditions for Canada 201 31. Typical Thermal Properties of Common Building and Insulating Materials-Design Values . 203 32. Overall Coefficients of Heat Transmission of Fenestration Products . 204 33. Transmission Coefficients (
46、U) for Wood and Steel Doors 205 34. Surface Conductances 206 35. Thermal Resistances of Plane Airspaces . 207 36. Emittance Values of Various Surfaces and Effective Emittances of Airspaces . 206 37. Infiltration through Windows 209 38. Air Changes Occurring in Residences . 209 39. Heat Loss Coeffici
47、ent for Slab Floor Construction . 211 40. Moisture Production from Residential Operations 213 41. Ranges of Comparability for Gas-Fired Boilers 214 42. Correction Factors for Various Types of Heating Units 215 43. Selection of Forced-Air Furnace Sizes, Mbtu per hr. 220 44. Duct Construction Minimum
48、Sheet-Metal Thicknesses 221 45. Typical Values of AFUE . 227 46. Average Degree Days, Cities in the U.S. and Canada . 227 47. Characteristics of Typical Gas-Fired Infrared Heaters 247 48. Maximum or Allowable Work-Place Levels of CO and CO2249 49. Cycle Conditions for an Ammonia-Water Refrigeration
49、Machine. 261 TABLES AND FIGURES xv 50. Window Glass Load Factors for Single-Family Detached Residences . 271 51. Sensible Cooling Load Due to Infiltration and Ventilation 272 52. CLTD Values for Single-Family Detached Residences 272 53. Shade-Line Factors (SLF) . 273 54. Energy Use in the United States (circa 1980) . 281 55. Water Heater Energy Factors 298 56. Typical Residen
