1、考研英语（阅读）模拟试卷 157 及答案与解析Part ADirections: Read the following four texts. Answer the questions below each text by choosing A, B, C or D. (40 points)0 AThe sort of faulty thinking called motivated reasoning also blocks our search for truth but advances arguments. For instance, we tend to look harder fo
2、r flaws in a study when we dont agree with its conclusions and are more critical of evidence that undermines our point of view. So birthers dismiss evidence offered by Hawaiian officials that Obamas birth certificate is real, and death-penalty foes are adept at finding flaws in studies that conclude
3、 capital punishment deters crime. While motivated reasoning may cloud our view of reality and keep us from objectively assessing evidence, Mercier says, by letting us to accept flaws(real or not)in that evidence it prepares us to mount a destroying strategy in arguments.BAnother form of flawed reaso
4、ning shows up in logic puzzles. Consider the syllogism “No C are B; all B are A; therefore some A are not C. “ Is it true? Fewer than 10 percent of us figure out that it is. One reason is that to evaluate its validity requires constructing counterexamples(finding an A that is a C, for instance). But
5、 finding counterexamples can, in general, invent our confidence in our own arguments.CWomen are bad drivers, Saddam plotted 9-11, Obama was not born in America, and Iraq had weapons of mass destruction: to believe any of these requires stopping some of our critical-thinking faculties and succumbing
6、instead to the kind of irrationality that drives the logically minded crazy. It helps, for instance, to use confirmation bias. It also helps not to test your beliefs against empirical data; not to subject beliefs to the plausibility test; and to be guided by emotion.DEven the sunk-cost fallacy, whic
7、h has tripped up everyone from supporters of a losing war to a losing stock, reflects reasoning that turns its back on logic but wins arguments because the emotions it appeals to are universal. If Mercier is right, the sunk-cost fallacy, confirmation bias, and the other forms of irrationality will b
8、e with us as long as humans like to argue. That is, forever.EAn idea sweeping through the ranks of philosophers and cognitive scientists suggests why this is so. The reason we succumb to confirmation bias, why we are blind to counterexamples, and why we fall short of Cartesian logic in so many other
9、 ways is that these oversights have a purpose: they help us “ invent and evaluate arguments that are intended to persuade other people,“ says psychologist Hugo Mercier of the University of Pennsylvania. Failures of logic, he propose, are in fact effective arms to win arguments. That puts poor reason
10、ing in a completely different light. Arguing, after all, is less about seeking truth than about overcoming opposing views. So while confirmation bias, for instance, may mislead us about whats true and real, by letting examples that support our view monopolize our memory and perception, it maximizes
11、the arms we use when trying to convince someone that, say, he really is “late all the time. “FForms of reasoning that are good for solving problems and winning arguments lose out, over the course of evolution. In fact, rationality refers to the success of goal attainment, whatever those goals may be
12、. Sometimes, rationality is equated with behavior that is self-interested to the point of being selfish. Sometimes rationality implies having complete knowledge about all the details of a given situation.GThe fact that humans are subject to all these failures of rational thought seems to make no sen
13、se. Reason is supposed to be the highest achievement of the human mind, and the route to knowledge and wise decisions. But as psychologists have been documenting since the 1960s, humans are really, really bad at reasoning. Its not just that we follow our emotions so often, in contexts from voting to
14、 ethics. No, even when we intend to deploy the full force of our rational faculties, we often failed.Order:5 To bring the tofu, or not bring the tofu? Its a question that Genevieve Hartman has been rolling over in her mind for some time now. The 28-year-old vegetarian will be spending Thanksgiving a
15、t her boyfriends professors house in New York City. Thanksgiving used to be one of Hartmans favorite holidays, when she celebrated it with her vegetarian family in San Francisco. But ever since she moved to New York five years ago and began spending the holiday with relatives or friends, its been a
16、source of anxiety.【R1】_The number of vegetarians in the United States has doubled over the past 10 years, according to polls by the Vegetarian Resource Group, and now stands somewhere around 4.7 million. Freezer aisles at grocery stores stock a growing selection of man-made meat products, from tofu
17、buffalo wings to soy-based kielbasa. Veggie burgers have become a common fixture at barbecues.【R2 】_Its the one holiday, Turkey Day, thats so strongly associated with meat that not participating seems almost unpatriotic.【R3 】_Between the mashed potatoes, green bean casserole, candied yams and plenty
18、 of desserts, you can usually find a way to stuff yourself silly. Instead, the vegetarian frustration is with the flurry of questions that follow saying “no thank you“ to the turkey.【R4 】_ Many of their hosts find accommodating vegetarian stressful because theyre used to working with such a set Than
19、ksgiving menu. “My step-mother didnt know a vegetarian and definitely didnt like it,“ says Mollie Marti, 42, who married into an Iowa farm family. “ It was more of the unknown that was uncomfortable for her than it was her judging. There was a nervousness on both sides. “ The key to a successful Tha
20、nksgiving, Marti says, has been communication about what she eats and what she doesnt.【R5 】_ “Memories based on sight and sound are relatively absent of strong emotional evocation,“ says Thomas F. Shipley, a psychology professor at Temple University. “But because of the way the brain is wired, smell
21、s directly evoke emotions. So the thought is that with something like Thanksgiving, where you may have been eating the same foods and smelling the same smells since you were a child, it will evoke very strong emotional memories from earlier in life. “And sometimes, Thanksgiving tensions can turn int
22、o their own family tradition. Shelley Frost became a vegetarian over 20 years ago, on Thanksgiving Day 1986. The 47-year-old videogra-pher received the typical jeering and questioning from her family, largely from her cousin Bryan. She even skipped the family dinner a few years ago, trading in the t
23、urkey and the taunting for a Japanese restaurant with plenty of vegetarian options. But something didnt feel right. “Honestly, at this point, it would be weird if Thanksgiving didnt include Bryan making every lame joke he can think of, pushing me in the ribs,“ says Frost. “Who else but your family c
24、an make fun of you like that?“ Thats a holiday custom that no Tofurkey could ever replace.ABut many vegetarians, particularly those who are the only one in a large family, say Thanksgiving has become that one day of the year where theyre reminded that they are indeed in the minority, a mere 2 percen
25、t of a meat-eating society.BThe problem isnt necessarily a lack of food.CTake the tofu dilemma: on the one hand, she doesnt want to get stranded at a turkey-heavy table without anything to eat, which might make her hosts feel bad.DLongstanding dining traditions like the Thanksgiving turkey may be pa
26、rticularly difficult to depart from because their associated with such distinct smells.EFor some kids in the U. S. recent years Thanksgiving, dinner has been a bit different. They have sweet potatoes and tofurkey on that day.FVegetarians arent the only ones anxious over next Thursdays festivities.GM
27、ollie Marti said,“Im not saying you need to become a vegetarian. Im saying that small steps, taken a few weeks at a time, makes the process much easier. Ive done it with meat, with fried foods, with sweets, with eating more fruits and whole grains, and many other food changes, and its worked every t
28、ime. “6 【R1 】7 【R2 】8 【R3 】9 【R4 】10 【R5 】10 Your doctor is recommending a surgical procedure youre unsure about. Or maybe youve just received a diagnosis you dont understand. Or perhaps your doctor isnt giving you any diagnosis at all and you still dont feel right. In all these situations, you shou
29、ld seek a second opinion from another physician. Thats a message most Americans dont seem to get. According to a 2005 Gallup poll, about half of 5,000 Americans surveyed said they never seek a second opinion when their doctor “diagnoses a condition, or prescribes a treatment, drug, or operation“ whi
30、le just 3 percent say they always seek one.Whats the problem? In most cases, its ignorance of how the health-care system works. Patients just dont understand that doctors think seeking a second opinion is routine. Many insurers recommend it and some even require it for certain procedures.【R1】_Doctor
31、s say that both men and women should seek a second opinion in virtually all types of non-emergency surgery, when your doctor recommends long-term medication that has potential side effects and if you are not feeling better despite repeated visits to your doctor. In the first two cases, studies indic
32、ate that the second physician is most likely to confirm the initial recommendation, but may also suggest alternatives for you to consider.【R2 】_Thats especially true if you a get a recommendation for a hysterectomy, an operation in which the uterus is removed. Its the second most common surgery a-mo
33、ng American women. And yet, many doctors think there are other ways to deal with some of the problemssuch as uterine fibroids, pain or heavy bleedingthat lead to hysterectomies. Those other options might include medication or less drastic procedures.Women should also seek a second opinion for unreso
34、lved cardiac problems. Until recently, for example, doctors didnt understand that the signs of a heart attack in women can be very different from those in men.【R3】_Deciding you need another opinion is the first step. How do you find the right doctor?【R4 】_ Other resources include local medical socie
35、ties, and academic medical centers, which often are the best place to find state-of-the-art treatment options. You want to find someone who is an expert on your particular problem.【R5 】_Dr. Jonathan Schaffer, managing director of e-Cleveland Clinic, says online second opinions are appropriate when t
36、he condition has “objective criteria“in other words, an imaging study, stress test or pathology results. But its not appropriate for conditions that require more subjective interpretation, he says, such as earlier stages of breast cancer, when mammogram readings can vary and in-person consultation c
37、ould be more useful.Most of the time, the second opinion confirms the first, Cummings says, but when there is a conflict, you may have to go to a third doctor. You can also ask both of the first two doctors to explain their decisions in more detail. When the time comes to make a decision, the Ottawa
38、 Personal Decision Guide offers a step-by-step worksheet.ABut women in particular often say they feel awkward about consulting another doctor because they worry that their primary physician will be less than cordial in future visits. In fact, thats rarely the case.BAnother possibility is an online c
39、onsultation, offered by the Cleveland Clinic, among other places.CIn addition to these general recommendations, women should get a second opinion for certain issues specific to gender.DMany physicians suggest starting with your primary-care doctor.EConsulting another doctor will be a fashion in deve
40、loped countries, especially in the United States.FTests given to detect heart disease in men may not always be sensitive to womens heart problems so if you get an all-clear but continue to experience symptoms such as shortness of breath or periods of rapid heartbeat, you should seek another opinionp
41、referably from a specialist in womens heart disease.GYou must first get the permission of Ministry of Health, and under the supervision of Governments health care system if you need a second opinion.11 【R1 】12 【R2 】13 【R3 】14 【R4 】15 【R5 】15 Whether theyre preschoolers from Australian suburbs or Kal
42、ahari Bushmen, children copy adults to a fault, according to a new study. The findings suggest that overimitationin which a child copies everything an adult does, even irrelevant or silly actionsis a universal human trait that may contribute to our complex culture.Researchers already knew that overi
43、mitation was a human-specific quirk. In previous studies , dogs and chimps taught to open a box and retrieve a toy copied their teachers toy-seeking behavior only when it proved efficient.【 R1】_“Animals focus on getting the job done,“ explains Mark Nielsen, a psychologist at the University of Queens
44、land in Brisbane, Australia. “Humans seem to almost forget about the outcome and copy everything we see. “【R2 】_Such parents tend to regularly teach and model behaviors for their children: for example, they frequently point out objects and explain what they are used for, or instruct their children s
45、tep-by-step through a new activity, thus encouraging their children to view them as experts and overimitate them. So he turned to a culture with a distinctly different parenting style: the Bushmen of the Kalahari Desert.【R3 】_To test his idea, Nielsen taught more than 90 children aged 2 to 13 in mul
46、tiple Bushmen communities and in Brisbane to open a set of opaque boxes that each contained a hidden toy. Each box could be easily opened by lifting a knob, sliding a switch, or removing two nails that put a lid into place.【R4 】_Then Nielsen or an instructing adult from the community showed the chil
47、dren how to open the box, incorporating an impractical action into the process: tracing circles over the box with a stick and using the stick to pull the knob, for example. To Nielsens surprise, all the kids overimitated equally.【R5 】_However, cognitive scientist Laura Schulz, of the Massachusetts I
48、nstitute of Technology in Cambridge, sounds a note of caution. The study doesnt explain why children overimitate, she says. It could be that humans tend to learn by imitating, or that they assume adults do things a certain way for a reason, such as politeness.A“I think this is good that children aro
49、und the world treat adults as rational and imitate them even if they dont understand what the adult is doingespecially if they dont know what the adult is doing. “ He says.BNielsen held doubts, however, that the overly faithful copycatting was really universal to all humans, because all the experimental subjects were the middle- to upper-class kids of Western-educated parents.CSixty-two of the children were a
