1、17.1CHAPTER 17RESIDENTIAL COOLING AND HEATING LOAD CALCULATIONSResidential Features. 17.1Calculation Approach 17.1Other Methods . 17.2Residential Heat Balance (RHB) Method 17.2Residential Load Factor (RLF) Method. 17.2Common Data and Procedures 17.3Cooling Load 17.8Heating Load 17.11Load Calculation
2、 Example. 17.12Symbols 17.14HIS chapter covers cooling and heating load calculationTprocedures for residential buildings, including detailed heat-balance methods that serve as the basis for cooling load calculation.Simple cooling load procedures, suitable for hand calculations, areprovided for typic
3、al cases. Straightforward heating load calculationprocedures are also included.Procedures in this chapter are based on the same fundamentals asthe nonresidential methods in Chapter 18. However, many charac-teristics distinguish residential loads, and Chapter 18s proceduresshould be applied with care
4、 to residential applications.Additional information about residential heating and cooling isfound in Chapter 1 of the 2011 ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Appli-cations and Chapter 10 of the 2012 ASHRAE HandbookHVACSystems and Equipment.RESIDENTIAL FEATURESWith respect to heating and cooling load calculation an
5、d equip-ment sizing, the following unique features distinguish residencesfrom other types of buildings:Smaller Internal Heat Gains. Residential system loads are pri-marily imposed by heat gain or loss through structural componentsand by air leakage or ventilation. Internal heat gains, particularlyth
6、ose from occupants and lights, are small compared to those incommercial or industrial structures.Varied Use of Spaces. Use of spaces in residences is more flexiblethan in commercial buildings. Localized or temporary tempera-ture excursions are often tolerable.Fewer Zones. Residences are generally co
7、nditioned as a singlezone or, at most, a few zones. Typically, a thermostat located inone room controls unit output for multiple rooms, and capacitycannot be redistributed from one area to another as loads changeover the day. This results in some hour-to-hour temperature vari-ation or swing that has
8、 a significant moderating effect on peakloads, because of heat storage in building components.Greater Distribution Losses. Residential ducts are frequentlyinstalled in attics or other unconditioned buffer spaces. Duct leak-age and heat gain or loss can require significant increases in unitcapacity.
9、Residential distribution gains and losses cannot beneglected or estimated with simple rules of thumb.Partial Loads. Most residential cooling systems use units of rel-atively small capacity (about 5 to 18 kW cooling, 18 to 32 kWheating). Because loads are largely determined by outdoor condi-tions, an
10、d few days each season are design days, the unit operatesat partial load during most of the season; thus, an oversized unit isdetrimental to good system performance, especially for cooling inareas of high wet-bulb temperature.Dehumidification Issues. Dehumidification occurs during cool-ing unit oper
11、ation only, and space condition control is usually lim-ited to use of room thermostats (sensible heat-actuated devices).Excessive sensible capacity results in short-cycling and severelydegraded dehumidification performance.In addition to these general features, residential buildings can becategorize
12、d according to their exposure:Single-Family Detached. A house in this category usually hasexposed walls in four directions, often more than one story, and aroof. The cooling system is a single-zone, unitary system with asingle thermostat. Two-story houses may have a separate coolingsystem for each f
13、loor. Rooms are reasonably open and generallyhave a centralized air return. In this configuration, both air andload from rooms are mixed, and a load-leveling effect, whichrequires a distribution of air to each room that is different from apure commercial system, results. Because the amount of air su
14、p-plied to each room is based on the load for that room, proper loadcalculation procedures must be used.Multifamily. Unlike single-family detached units, multifamilyunits generally do not have exposed surfaces facing in all direc-tions. Rather, each unit typically has a maximum of three exposedwalls
15、 and possibly a roof. Each living unit has a single unitarycooling system or a single fan-coil unit and the rooms are rela-tively open to one another. This configuration does not have thesame load-leveling effect as a single-family detached house.Other. Many buildings do not fall into either of the
16、precedingcategories. Critical to the designation of a single-family detachedbuilding is well-distributed exposure so there is not a short-duration peak; however, if fenestration exposure is predominantlyeast or west, the cooling load profile resembles that of a multifam-ily unit. On the other hand,
17、multifamily units with both east andwest exposures or neither east nor west exposure exhibit load pro-files similar to single-family detached.CALCULATION APPROACHVariations in the characteristics of residences can lead to surpris-ingly complex load calculations. Time-varying heat flows combineto pro
18、duce a time-varying load. The relative magnitude and patternof the heat flows depends on the building characteristics and expo-sure, resulting in a building-specific load profile. In general, an hour-by-hour analysis is required to determine that profile and find itspeak.In theory, cooling and heati
19、ng processes are identical; a commonanalysis procedure should apply to either. Acceptable simplificationsare possible for heating; however, for cooling, different approachesare used.Heating calculations use simple worst-case assumptions: no solaror internal gains, and no heat storage (with all heat
20、losses evaluatedinstantaneously). With these simplifications, the heating problem isreduced to a basic UAt calculation. The heating procedures in thisThe preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 4.1, Load Calculation Dataand Procedures.17.2 2013 ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals (SI)chapter use this
21、long-accepted approach, and thus differ only indetails from prior methods put forth by ASHRAE and others.The cooling procedures in this chapter were extensively revised in2005, based on the results of ASHRAE research project RP-1199,also supported by the Air-Conditioning Contractors of America(ACCA)
22、 (Barnaby et al. 2004, 2005). Although the complexity of res-idential cooling load calculations has been understood for decades,prior methods used a cooling load temperature difference/coolingload factor (CLTD/CLF) form requiring only hand-tractable arith-metic. Without such simplification, the proc
23、edures would not havebeen used; an approximate calculation was preferable to none at all.The simplified approaches were developed using detailed computermodels and/or empirical data, but only the simplifications were pub-lished. Now that computing power is routinely available, it is appro-priate to
24、promulgate 24 h, equation-based procedures.OTHER METHODSSeveral residential load calculation methods have been publishedin North America over the last 30 years. All use the UAt heatingformulation and some variation of the CLTD/CLF approach forcooling.ACCA. Manual J, 8th edition (ACCA 2011) is widely
25、 used in theUnited States. Cooling loads are calculated using semiempiricalheat gain factors derived from experimental data taken at the Uni-versity of Illinois in the 1950s. These factors, associated over-view, and references are found in the 1985 and earlier editions ofthe ASHRAE HandbookFundament
26、als. The 8th edition retainsthe underlying factors but provides increased flexibility in theirapplication, in addition to other extensions.ASHRAE. The 1989 to 2001 editions of the ASHRAE Hand-bookFundamentals contain an updated method based onASHRAE research project RP-342 (McQuiston 1984). In thisw
27、ork, cooling factors were re-derived using a transfer-functionbuilding model that included temperature-swing effects.F280. This Canadian adaptation of the CLTD/CLF procedure(CAN/CSA Standard F280) also uses cooling methods based onASHRAE RP-342. Heating procedures include detailed groundheat loss es
28、timates.A key common element of all cooling methods is attention totemperature swing, via empirical data or suitable models. Through-out the literature, it is repeatedly emphasized that direct applicationof nonresidential methods (based on a fixed set point) results inunrealistically high cooling lo
29、ads for residential applications.RESIDENTIAL HEAT BALANCE (RHB) METHODA 24 h procedure is required to accurately determine the coolingload profile of a residence. The heat balance (HB) method allowsdetailed simulation of space temperatures and heat flows. ASHRAEresearch project RP-1199 adapted HB to
30、 residential applications,resulting in the residential heat balance (RHB) method. AlthoughRHB provides the technical basis for this chapter, it is a computer-only technique and is not documented here. HB is described inChapter 18 and Pedersen et al. 1998; Barnaby et al. (2004, 2005)document RHB enha
31、ncements.RP-1199 produced an implementation of the RHB method,called ResHB (Barnaby et al. 2004). This application is derivedfrom the ASHRAE Toolkit for Building Load Calculations (Peder-sen et al. 2001) and has the following features:Multizone. Whereas the original Toolkit code supported a singlezo
32、ne, ResHB can analyze projects that include multiple systems,zones, and rooms.Temperature swing. ResHB calculates cooling load with tem-perature swing. That is, the code searches for sensible capacitysufficient to hold the space temperature within a specified excur-sion above the set point.Master/sl
33、ave control. ResHB allows control of cooling output in“slave” rooms based on the cooling requirements of a “master”room, where the thermostat is located. Rooms with incompatibleload profiles will exhibit poor temperature control.Residential defaults. ResHB includes default values suitable forresiden
34、tial problems.In its current form, ResHB is a research-oriented referenceimplementation of RHB. ResHB FORTRAN source code is avail-able under license from ASHRAE.RESIDENTIAL LOAD FACTOR (RLF) METHODThe procedure presented in this chapter is the residential loadfactor (RLF) method. RLF is a simplifie
35、d procedure derived fromdetailed ResHB analysis of prototypical buildings across a range ofclimates. The method is tractable by hand but is best applied usinga spreadsheet. Two main applications are anticipated:Education and training. The transparency and simplicity of RLFmake it suitable for use in
36、 introductory courses on building loadcalculations.Quick load estimates. In situations where detailed analysis isimpractical, the RLF method is a possible alternative. For exam-ple, the method might be implemented as a spreadsheet on a hand-held device and used for on-site sizing of replacement cool
37、ingequipment.Note that, although room-by-room calculations are possible withthe RLF method, computerized methods based on RHB are moresuitable for performing full room-level calculations required forequipment selection and distribution system design.RLF was derived from several thousand ResHB coolin
38、g loadresults (Barnaby and Spitler 2005; Barnaby et al. 2004). A range ofclimates and building types were analyzed. Statistical regressiontechniques were used to find values for the load factors tabulated inlater sections. Factor values were validated by comparing ResHBversus RLF results for buildin
39、gs not involved in the regressionanalysis. Within its range of applicability, RLF cooling loads aregenerally within 10% of those calculated with ResHB. The RLFderivation was repeated for 2009 using the updated temperature pro-file and clear-sky model (see Chapter 14), resulting in minor revi-sions t
40、o load factors and other coefficients. Additional revisions toChapter 14 occurred in 2013; those changes would alter RLF valuesvery little, so the 2009 factors are retained.The RLF method should not be applied to situations outside therange of underlying cases, as shown in Table 1.Note that the RLF
41、calculation sequence involves two distinctsteps. First, the cooling and heating load factors (CFs and HFs) arederived for all project component types. These factors are then ap-plied to the individual components by a single multiplication. (Thetwo-step approach is demonstrated in the Load Calculatio
42、n Exam-ple section.) For a specific location and representative construc-tions, CFs and HFs can be precalculated and used repeatedly. Inessence, the structure of RLF allows assembling location-specificversions of the rigid tables found in prior editions, and also docu-ments the equations used to gen
43、erate tabulated values. Using theseequations, a complete implementation of the RLF method, includ-ing CF and HF calculation, is well within the capabilities of currentPC spreadsheet applications.Residential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations 17.3COMMON DATA AND PROCEDURESThe following guidelines,
44、 data requirements, and proceduresapply to all load calculation approaches, whether heating or cooling,hand-tractable or computerized.General GuidelinesDesign for Typical Building Use. In general, residential sys-tems should be designed to meet representative maximum-loadconditions, not extreme cond
45、itions. Normal occupancy should beassumed, not the maximum that might occur during an occasionalsocial function. Intermittently operated ventilation fans should beassumed to be off. These considerations are especially important forcooling-system sizing.Building Codes and Standards. This chapter pres
46、entation isnecessarily general. Codes and regulations take precedence; consultlocal authorities to determine applicable requirements.Designer Judgment. Designer experience with local conditions,building practices, and prior projects should be considered whenapplying the procedures in this chapter. F
47、or equipment-replacementprojects, occupant knowledge concerning performance of the exist-ing system can often provide useful guidance for achieving a suc-cessful design.Verification. Postconstruction commissioning and verificationare important steps in achieving design performance. Designersshould e
48、ncourage pressurization testing and other procedures thatallow identification and repair of construction shortcomings.Uncertainty and Safety Allowances. Residential load calcula-tions are inherently approximate. Many building characteristics areestimated during design and ultimately determined by co
49、nstructionquality and occupant behavior. These uncertainties apply to all cal-culation methods, including first-principles procedures such asRHB. It is therefore tempting to include safety allowances for eachaspect of a calculation. However, this practice has a compoundingeffect and often produces oversized results. Typical conditionsshould be assumed; safety allowances, if applied at all, should beadded to the final calculated loads rather than to intermediate com-ponents. In addition, temperature swing provides a built-in safetyfactor for sensible cooling: a 20% capacity shortfall
