1、Changes in Plain Bearing TechnologyOther SAE books of interest Engine Failure Analysis: Internal Combustion Engine Failures and their Causes By Stefan Zima and Ernst Greuter (Product Code: R-320) Modern Engine Technology from A to Z By Richard Van Basshuysen and Fred Schaefer (Product Code: R-373) D
2、esign Practices: Passenger Car Automatic Transmissions(Product Code: AE-29) For more information or to order a book, contact: SAE International 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA Phone: 877-606-7323 (U.S. and Canada only) or 724-776-4970 (outside U.S. and Canada) Fax: 724-776-0790;
3、 Email: CustomerServicesae.org; Website: books.sae.orgChanges in Plain Bearing Technology By Rolf Koring Translation by Phil Dando Warrendale, Pennsylvania USA Copyright 2013 SAE International. eISBN: 978-0-7680-7890-9400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA E-mail: CustomerServicesae.or
4、g Phone: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada)724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-0790 Copyright 2013 SAE International. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, distributed, or transmitted, in any form or by any means without the prior wri
5、tten permission of SAE. For permission and licensing requests, contact SAE Permissions, 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA; e-mail: copyrightsae.org; phone: 724-772-4028; fax: 724-772-9765. ISBN 978-0-7680-7724-7 SAE Order No. R-420 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Da
6、ta Koring, Rolf.Gleitlagertechnik im Wandel. EnglishChanges in plain bearing technology/ by Rolf Koring ; translation by Phil Dando.pages cm“SAE Order Number R-420.”Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-0-7680-7724-7 (alk. paper)1. Plain bearings (Machinery)-Technological innovation
7、s. 2. Fluid-film bearings-Materials. 3. Babbitt metal. I. Title. TJ1063.K67 2013621.822-dc23 2012033050 Information contained in this work has been obtained by SAE International from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither SAE International nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or complet
8、eness of any information published herein and neither SAE International nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that SAE International and its authors are supplying information, b
9、ut are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. To purchase bulk quantities, please contact: SAE Customer Service E-mail: CustomerServicesae.org Phone: 877-606-7323 (inside USA
10、and Canada)724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-0790 Visit the SAE Bookstore at books.sae.org The cover photo shows a tilting pad journal bearing from John Crane Bearing Technology GmbH, Gttingen, used with permission. Translated from the German language edition: Gleitlagertechnik im Wandel by Ro
11、lf Koring Copyright expert verlag, Renningen, Germany, 2012.v Table of Contents Preface . ix 1 Introduction 1 2 The Hydrodynamic Plain Bearing and Its Advantages 32.1 The Operation of Hydrodynamic Plain Bearings 4 2.1.1 Journal Bearings 5 2.1.2 Lobed Bearings 82.1.3 Thrust Bearings 92.1.4 Hydrostati
12、cally Lubricated Bearings 12 3 Backing Materials 153.1 Steel Backings . 15 3.2 Cast Iron Backings . 163.3 Copper Alloy Backings 173.4 Heat Treatment of the Backings . 183.4.1 Normalization 183.4.2 Stress-Relief Treatment . 193.4.3 Hydrogen Removal Treatment 19 4 Lining Materials . 234.1 Lining Mater
13、ials of the Past 234.2 Lining Materials of the Present 234.3 Constraints for Tin-Based Plain Bearing Alloys 244.3.1 Viability of Manufacture 24 4.3.2 Lining Quality 274.3.3 Reliability under Operational Conditions . 274.4 The System for Developing a New White Metal . 284.4.1 Lead-Free 28 4.4.2 Optim
14、ization of the Basic System . 294.4.3 Additional Elements . 29 4.5 Comparison of International Technical Data . 334.6 Lining Materials of the Future . 34 5 Compound Material, the Great Unknown . 375.1 The Material Datas Scope of Information 375.1.1 Technical Properties of the Lining Material. 37 5.2
15、 Failure Criteria of Material Testing . 425.3 Failure Criteria of the Plain Bearing 42vi 6 Investigations on Test Rigs 456.1 A Retrospective on the History of Test Rig Design . 456.2 The New Procedure for Testing Compound Bearings 476.2.1 Summary 49 7 New Conclusions Relating to Compound Materials f
16、or Plain Bearings . 537.1 Performance Ranking of the Compound Materials 537.1.1 Ranking by the Fatigue Strength of the Compound Materials . 537.1.2 Rank in Order of Compressive Yield Strength 547.1.3 Rank in Order of Impact-Bending Strength 547.1.4 Rank in Order of Rotating-Bending Strength 547.1.5
17、Summary of Rank Order Based on Different Properties . 547.2 Fatigue Strength According to the Layer Thickness . 55 7.3 Observations on Thin Layers of Tin Alloys 557.4 Influences of Peripheral Speed and Frequency of Load Cycles 557.5 The Limits of the Measurable Fatigue Strength . 557.6 Fatigue Resis
18、tance of the Compound Material and the Influence of Stiffness of the Plain Bearing 567.7 The Deformations of a Plain Bearing 567.7.1 Elastohydrodynamic Deformation (EHD) of Plain Bearings 577.7.2 Different Deformation Types of the Lining . 587.7.3 Elastic Deformation 597.7.4 Deformation Due to Mater
19、ial Compaction 597.7.5 Modification of Surface by Mixed Friction 59 7.7.6 Creep Deformation 597.7.7 Deformation Due to Lining 597.8 Defects in the Layer . 607.9 Lubrication Gap Temperature and Material Temperature . 61 8 Preconditions for the Surface Lining of Plain Bearings 63 8.1 Equipment for the
20、 Casting Shop 638.1.1 Annealing Furnace 638.1.2 Grit Blasting Cabin 638.1.3 Grit 648.1.4 Activator or Flux . 648.1.5 Equipment for Tinning . 668.1.6 Melting Equipment for White Metals 668.2 Different Bonding Surface Designs . 678.2.1 Dovetail Grooves . 678.2.2 Machined Bond Surfaces 698.2.3 Smooth B
21、ond Surface 69vii 8.3 Preparation of the Backings 698.3.1 Heat Treatment 708.3.2 Blasting Procedure 70 8.3.3 Activating . 718.3.4 Tinning 718.4 Correct Use of the Molten Lining Material 73 9 The Lining of Plain Bearings 759.1 Static Casting 759.2 Centrifugal Casting 789.3 Lining by Soldering . 849.4
22、 Thermal Spraying . 879.5 Cold-Spraying Technology . 919.6 WIG Technology . 929.7 The Different Lining Procedures and Their Advantagesand Disadvantages . 92 9.8 Plain Bearing Lining Technology of the Future . 939.8.1 Bond 949.8.2 Crystal Refining . 949.8.3 Material Characteristics 959.8.4 Laser Lini
23、ng Process . 959.8.5 Summary of the Advantages Given by Laser Lining Technology 100 10 The Quality Standards for Plain Bearings . 10110.1 Plain Bearing Producers Process Qualification. 10110.2 Quality of the Plain Bearing Alloys . 10310.2.1 Specification of a Plain Bearing Alloy 10310.2.2 Methods of
24、 Analysis . 10510.2.3 Recipe (Composition) . 10810.2.4 Reuse of White Metal Chips 10910.3 Quality Control of Plain Bearings 11210.3.1 Inspection of the Geometry 11210.3.2 Inspection of the Bond 11210.3.3 Customers Specification 12610.3.4 The Quality of the Standards . 128 11 Plain Bearing Assembly a
25、nd Operation 131 11.1 Assembling Without Distortion . 13111.2 Seating of the Bearing 13211.3 Damages and Contaminations . 133viii 11.4 Misalignment 13411.5 The Lubrication Supply . 13411.6 The Scraping Procedure 135 11.7 Observation during Operation . 137 12 Plain Bearing Damage 13912.1 Precondition
26、s for Long Service 13912.2 The Need for Terminology 14012.2.1 Terminology . 14112.2.2 The Structure of Damages 14312.2.3 Damage Appearances . 14512.2.4 Damage Characteristics 15112.3 Analysis Using the Damage Matrix 15812.3.1 Examples Using the Damage Matrix 16012.4 Damage Report . 163 13 The Future
27、 of Plain Bearings . 165 References . 167 Credits . 169 Index . 171 About the Author 183ix Preface I was determined that before the end of my professional life I would document my experience in the field of plain bearings. While this is limited to metallic hydrodynamic bearings, it is no depreciatio
28、n of other bearings such as low- maintenance, sintered, and synthetic bearings. It just happens that my experience is mainly limited to the metallic hydrodynamic bearings, and I want to write on a subject where I have confidence in my experience. My involvement with bearing technology started relati
29、vely late. It accounts for the second half of my professional life. As a result, maybe I am at a disadvantage compared with colleagues who did this job their whole lives. But I am convinced that my previous work and associated experience are very helpful in my present position. A person changing car
30、eers can bring a fresh and impartial approach to problems. Established “facts” will be questioned, and the routine of structured working always proves to be helpful. After my academic studies and graduation as an engineer, for the first two years I made static calculations for steel bridges. Then fo
31、r fifteen years I performed static and dynamic calculation of power plant steel structures. On the construction sites many defects occurred, and so increasingly the refurbishment of damages became my speciality. In those days I used to jokingly say of my work, “everything that fractures will be refu
32、rbished by the fracture mechanic.” All of this does not directly relate to plain bearing technology, but I noticed very early in connection with those activities that, in general in the industry, more money and effort will be spent on selectively repairing damages than on eliminating the root causes
33、. I never was comfortable with these conditions, but at that time I was not in the position to change the situation. Already my endeavors to indicate the source of problems showed that I would make few friends that way. So I remained hopeful of sometime getting a position where I had more influence
34、on the general context. The realization of this hope by joining Th. Goldschmidt bearing technology was really good fortune. From the beginning I was multilaterally involved in metallurgy, production, application, technical support, and sales. That was for many years unchanged but, since the transfer
35、 of the bearing technology unit to the ECKA Granules group in 1998 and the acquisition of HOYT bearing metallurgy in 2004, the scope of my work has been extended enormously. As the general manager for all these activities, I gained increasing influence on R&D. In the field of plain bearing technolog
36、y, experts of many different disciplines work successfully. However, it can be observed that there is too little attention to the general problem and its solution, echoing my observations in my previous job. The phenomenon always happens when the general solution needs the cooperation of different d
37、isciplines. Interdisciplinary coordination becomes necessary but, in practice, very often this is not recognized or is ignored.x Nobody can claim to be an expert in all disciplines. That applies to me as well. With my multifunctional work, I came into a position to contact many experts whose work is
38、 bearing technology. From them I learned much. They raised my awareness for the total interactions. I owe my basic knowledge of bearing metallurgy to Mr. Hilgers, my predecessor at Th. Goldschmidt AG. He had contact with Prof. Macherauch in Karlsruhe University and his assistant Dr. Eifler, later a
39、Professor for metallurgy at Essen University and Kaiserslautern University. He taught me many aspects of metallurgy in detail. On my R his work is precise, authentic, and efficient. In particular, he has the ability to reduce problems to their basics and present them in a simple and understandable f
40、ormat. For his calculations and technical support of my newly developed fatigue test bench, I am deeply grateful. For intensive support with FEM calculations, I thank Mr. Schmitz from Renk AG and Mr. Persson from MAN Diesel. Lech Moczulski from MAN Diesel impressed me with his enthusiasm for laser w
41、elding and his many ideas, together with his colleagues Vagn Sture Hansen and Jesper Vejl Carstensen. Mr. Jasnau from SLV Rostock and his team also provided good input to the HERCULES B project. With Mr. Luchner from BMW, I had some interesting discussions about laser lining. In 2002, I had the chan
42、ce to found the VDMA Group for plain bearing working. Most of the German bearing producers became members, and we all stay active with exchange of knowledge and experience. This wealth of input is reinforced by my worldwide contacts through my job in ECKA Granules. It is impossible to name them all,
43、 but representatives of the association of bearing producers I want to mention here are Mr. Kowollik from GLS, the Edelmann brothers from the Edelmann company, and Dr. Hermes from John Crane Bearing technology. They are all very critical but constructive discussion partners. Besides the bearing prod
44、ucers as direct customers, I also support many end users of bearings. In most cases, the contact first arises in connection with operating trouble in the shape of plain bearing damage and is followed by the necessary damage analysis made by me. That provides an extensive insight into operating proce
45、dures, especially of power plants. In this respect I want to mention Mr. Jungbauer from Ennskraftwerke AG and Mr. Maldet from Tiroler Wasserkraftwerke AG, as notably genial and inspiring discussion partners.xi Finally, I come to Phil Dando. He became my colleague with the acquisition of British comp
46、any Hoyt Darchem. I am very grateful for his active support in translating this book, even after his retirement. With my collaboration on different working groups of ISO TC 123, I came in contact with further experts of bearing technology. Exhaustive discussions resulted eventually in practical stan
47、dards. I thank the Japanese Delegation for good and constructive cooperation, especially Professor Someya from The University of Tokyo. I must not omit my thanks to the owners of ECKA Granulate Group, Mr. and Mrs. Rohrseitz. They always supported my substantial R&D projects with commendable patience
48、. Worldwide contact with bearing producers and bearing users enabled me to continually expand my knowledge. The multifunctional job gave me the ability to always keep in sight a broad view of the entire picture. I learned that for a successful solution, it is important to recognize at an early stage
49、 all deviations of market requirements and to adapt the R&D activities to that. It is pointless to develop ingenious things for their own sake. The market needs must be the driving forces. My motto is not to re-invent the wheel again and again. New expertise should be acquired to become a basis for further development. So I want to bring my experience into this book. Following the title, it will cover the total range of topics from design to materials, production methods, quality, and operation, and ultimately the failures and damages of plain bearings. At many steps along
