1、The recent history of second language learning research and human learning,Part I L1 Acquisition,Introduction to Language Acquisition,Interests in L1 competence for many centuries beginning of analyzing child language systematically and its psychological process in the second half of the 20th centur
2、y analogies between L1 and L2 acquisition especially the differences in the case of adult SL learning in terms of cognitive and affective contrasts three theoretical positions of first language acquisition,Theories of L1 acquisition,(1) Behavioristic Approaches: focus on the publicly observable resp
3、onses (a) assumptions: (i) Children come into the world with a tabula rasa, a clean slate bearing no preconceived notions about the world or about language as to be shaped by their environment and slowing conditioned through reinforcement (ii) Effective language behavior is the production of correct
4、 responses to stimuli. (iii) If a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes habitual or conditioned.,Theories of L1 acquisition,(b) Verbal Behavior by B.F. Skinner (1957): a behavioristic model of linguistic behavior extended from operant conditioning*Assumption:(i) an operant (an utterance
5、) is emitted without necessarily observable stimuli;(ii) that operant is learned by reinforcement such as from another person.(iii)verbal behavior is controlled by its consequences(rewards or punishment or no reinforcement)*Criticism: Behaviorism cannot explain creativity of child language (by Noam
6、Chomsky),Theories of L1 acquisition,(2) The Nativist Approaches (a) innateness hypotheses (i) Assertion: language acquisition is innately determined. Language is a species-specific behavior and certain modes of perception, categorizing abilities are biologically determined. (by Eric Lenneberg, 1967)
7、 Language acquisition device (LAD) in a little black box sound discrimination, organization of linguistic data, only one possibility of a certain kind of linguistic system within ones head, constant evaluation in developing linguistic system to construct the simplest possible system out of the avail
8、able linguistic input(by Chomsky, 1965)(ii) strengths: able to account for the generativity of child langauge,Universal Grammar (Cook 1993, Mitchell & Myles 1998)(i) all human beings are genetically equipped with abilities that enable them to acquire language(ii) to discover what it is that all chil
9、dren bring to the language acquisition process from question formation, negation, word order, subject deletion and so on.(c) the development of generative grammar: children construct hypothetical grammar, formal representations of deep structures which start as pivot grammars (two-word utterances fo
10、r two word classes) and mature.,(d) the Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model by Spolsky (Connectionism):(i) A learners linguistic performance may be the consequence of many levels of simultaneous neural interconnections rather than aserial process of one rule being applied, then another and s
11、o on.(ii) refutation of the generative rule-governed model: generative rules in a linguistic sense are not connected serially, with one connection between each pair of neurons in the brain(e) Contributions of Nativism:(i) able to explore the unseen, observable, underlying, abstract linguistic struct
12、ures being developed in the child(ii) systematic description of the childs linguistic repertoire as either rule-governed or operating out of parallel distributed processing capacities(iii) the construction of a number of potential properties of UG,Theories of L1 acquisition,(3) Functional Approaches
13、 (language use and cognitive/affective domains by constructivism) (a) Two emphases: Seeing language as one manifestation of the cognitive and affective ability to deal with the world, with others and with the self. (ii) Nativism as being unable to deal with the deeper levels of meaning of language c
14、onstructed from social interaction but with the forms of language.,(b) cognition and language development: Lois Bloom (1971): children learn underlying structures and not superficial word order as shown in pivot grammar, depending on the social context(ii) Jean Piaget (1969): what children know (cog
15、nition development) will determine what they learn about the code for both speaking and understanding messages (language development)(iii) Dan Slobin (1971): in all languages, semantic learning depends on cognitive development and that sequences of development are determined more by semantic complex
16、ity, than by structural complexity- schema of cognition on the functional level and schema of grammar on the formal level,(c) social interaction and language development (i) Holzman (1984): a reciprocal model - a reciprocal system operates between the language developing infant-child and the compete
17、nc adult language user in a socializing-teaching-nurturing role(ii) Berko Gleason (1988) & Lock (1991): the interaction between language acquisition and learning of social systems(iii) Budwig (1995) & Kuczaj (1984): the function of language in discourse (relations between sentences) in terms of conv
18、ersational cues,* Schools of thought in First Language Acquisition,* Schools of thought in SLA,Part I L1 Acquisition,2. Issues in L1 acquisition (1) -Competence: ones underlying knowledge of the system of a language - Performance: actual production (speaking, writing) or the comprehension (listening
19、, reading) of linguistic eventsCriticism:(i) competence defined by Chomsky consists of the abilities of an idealized hearer-speaker, devoid of any performance variables (ii) dualism are unnecessary and the only option for linguists is to study language in use (by Firth and Halliday) (iii) heterogene
20、ous competence by Tarone: that all of a childs skps and hesitations and self-corrections are potentially connected to,(2)Comprehension & production (i) comprehension and production can be aspects of both competence and performance. (ii) Production competence = comprehension competence? (iii) Superio
21、rity of production over comprehension?(3) Nature or nurture?- whats predetermined and whats learned? (i) Nativism: universal innateness in all human beings (the LAD or UG) (ii) Environmental factors also matter,(4)Universals (a) language is universally acquired in the same manner (b) the deep struct
22、ure of language at its deepest level may be common to all languages. (c) Universal linguistic categories e.g. word order, morphological marking tone, agreement (d) Principles Japanese head last),(5) Systematicity: the systematicity of the acquisition process in inferring the phonological, structural
23、, lexical, and semantic system of languageVariability: variability in the process of learning; to determine what is variable maybe systematic (6) Language and thought: language interacts simultaneously with thoughts and feelings (a) Jerome Bruner (1966): words shape concepts (b) Vygotsky (1962, 1978
24、): social interaction, through language, is a prerequisite to cognitive development (zone of proximal development- the distance between a childs actual cognitive capacity and the level of potential development)(c) Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Language affects thought- each language imposes on its speaker
25、 a particular world view,(7) Imitation: (a) surface imitation as a strategy in early language learning assupported by behaviorism (b) deep imitation: true value in meaningful semantic level- the deep structure of languagee.g. children often repeat the correct underlying deep structure with a change
26、in the surface rendition(8) Practice: frequency of stimuli (unimportant to Nativists) + importance of words - key to language acquisition(9) Input: adult and peer input to children seen not as important as the influence of LAD to explain how children acquire language successfully by nativists but in
27、 fact ungrammatical input is largely ignored and finally transfer correct forms to speech,(10) Discourse (by social constructivists)(a) interaction rather than exposure is required for successful language acquisition(b) Sinclair and Culthard (1975): to examine conversations in terms of initiations a
28、nd responses; literal meaning is not necessarily the same as intended meaning,3. mistakes in drawing direct analogies between first and second language acquisition(Ausubel)(1) rote learning practice lacks meaningfulness necessary for language learning(2) adults learning a foreign language could bene
29、fit from learning grammar deductively(3) L1 is not just an interfering factor(4) The written form of the language could be beneficial(5) Students could be overwhelmed by language spoken at its natural speed,Part II Second Language Acquisition,1. Age and acquisition (1) the Critical Period Hypothesis
30、 ( a biological timetable for language acquisition)- Assumption: a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired more easily and beyond which time language is increasingly difficult to acquire (2) Neurological considerations(a) hemispheric lateralization(i) as the human brain
31、matures, certain functions are assigned or lateralized to one side of hemisphere.(ii)The left brain: intellectual, logical and analytic; the right brain: emotional and social(iii) research question: when lateralization takes place and how it affects language acquisitio- Lenneberg (1967): lateralizat
32、ion begins around age 2 and is completed around puberty - Thomas Scovel (1969): Learning a L2 as well as L1 should be prior to puberty plasiticity especially for nativelike (authentic) pronunciation(iv) Unresolved time of lateralization: five or puberty,(b) biological timetables: support for the acq
33、uisition of an authentic accent on a neurologically basis, not for that of higher order processes or communicative fluency (i) a socio-biological critical period by Thomas Scovel (1988)- the development of a socially bonding accent at puberty, enabling species- to form an identify with their own com
34、munity as they anticipate roles of parenting and leadership- to attract mates of their own kind to maintain their own species(ii) different aspects of a L2 are learned optimally at different ages by Walsh and Diller (1981)-lower-order processes e.g. pronunciation depending on early maturing and less
35、 adaptive macroneural circuits,(c) right-hemispheric participation (i) Obler (1981): the active role of the right brain in SLA or strategies of acquisition e.g. guessing at meanings, use of formulaic utterances (ii) Genessee (1982): greater involvement of the right hemisphere in bilinguals particula
36、rly for adult learners(d) anthropological evidence: against Scovels age-related view(i) some adult learners success in language learning(ii) motivation, affective variables, social factors and the quality of input also important in explaining advantage of the child* the significance of accent: - for
37、 the critical period: from phonology, much muscular control is required to be fluent in authentic L2 so children easily achieve it- against the critical period: fluency over accuracy in pronunciation; how people have accomplished beyond phonological factors,(3) Cognitive considerations(a) intellectu
38、al development (Piaget)(i) three stages: sensorimotor stage (2); preoperational stage (2-7); operational stage (7- 16)(concrete operational stage 7-11; formal operational stage 11-16)(ii) for the critical period: at puberty, one is capable of abstraction by Piaget; benefits of deductive thinking for
39、 adult learners by Ausubel(b) affective, rather than cognitive factors, that facilitate adult learners second language acquisition(i) adults are aware of their learning and can use strategies to help themselves to be successful(ii) dominance of the left hemisphere after puberty contributes to a tend
40、ency to overanalyze and to be too intellectually centered on SLA,(c) equilibration: cognition develops as a process of moving from states of doubt and uncertainty to stages of resolution and certainty; from disequilibrium (which provides motivation for language learning: language interacts with cogn
41、ition to achieve equilibrium) to equilibrium(d) rote and meaningful learning: learning must be related to existing knowledge and experience; foreign language classroom should not become the locus of excessive rote activity (4) Affective considerations: empathy, self-esteem, extroversion, inhibition,
42、 anxiety, attitudes(a) egocentricity: esp for children(b) language ego by Alexander Guiora (1972):(i) the identify a person develops in reference to the language he or she speaks(ii) childrens ego is dynamic and flexible so learning a new language is not a threat to the ego; adults is protective and
43、 defensive(iii) successful learning- ones language ego must be strong enough to overcome inhibitions,(c) identity: affective inhibitions of children and adults; a second identity (d) attitudes: advantage of young children whose attitudes towards races, cultures, classes of people havent been develop
44、ed (e) peer pressure: childrens strong constraints upon them to conform; adults tolerate linguistic differences more than children (5) Linguistic considerations(a) Bilingualism(i) two kinds of bilinguals- coordinate bilinguals: two meaning systems learned from different language contexts- compound b
45、ilinguals: one meaning system from which both language operate(ii) code-switching of most bilinguals: the act of inserting words, phrases, or even longer stretches of one language into the other, especially when communicating with another bilingual(iii) a considerable benefit of early childhood bili
46、ngualism: bilingual children are more facile at concept formation and have a greater mental flexibility,(b) interference between L1 and L2: usually not in young children (c) interference in adults: not necessarily since adults manifest errors not unlike some of the errors children make as the result
47、 of creative perception of the second language(d) order of acquisition: (i) focus on morphemes by Dulay and Burt - methodological arguments, lack of generalizability(ii) the myth of “the younger, the better” by Scovel: adults can benefit from literacy, vocabulary, pragmatics, schematic knowledge, an
48、d even syntax plane,2. Human learning(1) Classical Behaviorism by Pavlov: respondent conditioning that is concerned with respondent behavior that is elicited by a preceding stimulus(2) Operant Conditioning by Skinner: operant behavior is one in which one operates on the environment; a concern about
49、the consequences that follow the response(3) Meaningful Learning Theory by Ausubel: learning takes place in a meaningful process of relating new events or items to already existing cognitive concepts(i) any learning situation can be meaningful if: learners have a meaningful learning set and the lear
50、ning task itself is potentially meaningful to the learners(ii) a meaningfully learned, subsumed item has greater potential for retention(iii) forgetting is a second stage of subsumption for - an economical reason through cognitive pruning where a single inclusive concept than a large number of more specific items is retained- language attribution: the strength and conditions of initial learning; motivation; use of a L2,
