1、A survey of Energy Efficient Network Protocols for Wireless Networks,Christine E. Jones Krishna M. Sivalingam Prathima Agrawal Jyh-Cheng Chen,Issue 1/2,Rapid expansion of wireless services, mobile data and wireless LANs Greatest limitation: finite power supplies,Issue 2/2,Typical example of power co
2、nsumption from a mobile computer (Toshiba 410 CDT): 36% Display 21% CPU/memory 18% Wireless interface 18% Hard drive Goal Incorporate energy conservation at all layers of protocol stack,Energy Efficiency Research in Protocol Stack,Physical Layer,Two different perspectives Increase battery capacity I
3、ncrease capacity while restricting weight However battery technology hasnt experienced significant advancement in the past 30 years Decrease of energy consumed Variable clock speed CPUs Flash memory Disk spindown,Sources of Power Consumption,Two types Communication related Computation related Tradeo
4、ff between them,Communication related,Three modes: Transmit Receive Standby Example: Proxim RangeLAN2 2.4 GHz 1.6 Mbps PCMCIA card 1.5W transmit, 0.75W receive, 0.01W standby Turnaround between transmit and receive typically takes 6 to 30 microseconds Optimize the transceiver usage,Computation relat
5、ed,Usage of CPU, main memory and disk Data compression techniques for reduction of packet length increase power consumption,General Guidelines and Mechanisms 1/5,Reduce collisions in MAC Retransmissions lead to power consumption and delays Cannot be completely eliminated due to user mobility and var
6、ying set of mobiles Change typical broadcast mechanism 802.11: Receiver keeps track of channel status through constant monitoring,General Guidelines and Mechanisms 2/5,Turnaround between transmit and receive mode spends time and power Allocate contiguous slots for transmission or reception Request m
7、ultiple transmission slots with a single reservation packet Computation of transmission schedule should be relegated to base station,General Guidelines and Mechanisms 3/5,Scheduling algorithm may additionally consider battery power level Allow mobile to re-arrange allocated slots under low-power con
8、ditions At link layer: Avoid transmissions when channel conditions are poor Combine ARQ and FEC mechanisms,General Guidelines and Mechanisms 4/5,Energy efficient routing protocols Ensure all nodes equally deplete their power level Avoid routing through nodes with lower battery power Requires mechani
9、sm for dissemination of node battery power Periodicity of routing updates can be reduced May result in inefficient routes,General Guidelines and Mechanisms 5/5,OS level Suspend of specific sub-unit (disk, memory, display etc.) when detect prolonged inactivity,MAC Sublayer,Three specific MAC protocol
10、s IEEE 802.11 EC-MAC PAMAS,IEEE 802.11 Standard 1/2,A mobile that wishes to conserve power may switch to sleep mode and inform the base station The base station Buffers packets that are destined for the sleeping mobile Periodically transmits a beacon that contains information about such buffered pac
11、kets When the mobile wakes up, it listens for this beacon, and responds to the base station which then forwards the packets,IEEE 802.11 Standard 2/2,Conserves power but results in additional delays and may affect the QoS Experimental measurements of per packet energy consumption Same incremental cos
12、ts for both unicast and broadcast traffic Higher fixed costs for unicast transmission because of MAC coordination and CTS and ACK messages,EC-MAC Protocol 1/7,Energy Conserving-Medium Access Control Developed with the issue of energy efficiency as a primary goal Defined for infrastructure network bu
13、t can be extended to ad-hoc by allowing mobiles to elect a coordinator It is based on reservation and scheduling and supports QoS,EC-MAC Protocol 2/7,EC-MAC Protocol 3/7,FSM: transmitted at the start of each frame by the base station contains synchronization information and uplink transmission order
14、 for subsequent reservation phase Request/Update Phase: Each registered mobile transmits new connection requests and status of established queues Collisions avoided,EC-MAC Protocol 4/7,New User Phase (Aloha): Registration of new users Collisions occur Provides time for BS to compute the data phase t
15、ransmission schedule Schedule Message: Broadcasted by the base station Contains the slot permissions for the subsequent data phase,EC-MAC Protocol 5/7,Data phase (Downlink): Transmission from base station to mobiles Scheduled considering QoS requirements Data phase (Uplink): Slots allocated using a
16、suitable scheduling algorithm,EC-MAC Protocol 6/7,Collisions are avoided and this reduces the number of retransmissions Mobile receivers are not required to monitor the channel because of schedules Centralized scheduler can optimize schedule so that mobiles transmit and receive within contiguous slo
17、ts,EC-MAC Protocol 7/7,Scheduling algorithms may consider also battery power level in addition to packet priority Frames may be fixed or variable length Fixed are desirable from energy efficient perspective since a mobile will know when to wake up to receive FSM Variable are better for meeting the d
18、emands of bursty traffic,PAMAS Protocol 1/3,Designed for ad hoc network, with energy efficiency as primary goal Provides separate channels for RTS/CTS control packets and data packets,PAMAS Protocol 2/3,A mobile with a packet to transmit sends a RTS over the control channel, and awaits the CTS If no
19、 CTS arrives the mobile enters a backoff state However, if CTS is received, then the mobile transmits the packet over the data channel The receiving mobile transmits a “busy tone” over the control channel for the others to determine that the data channel is busy,PAMAS Protocol 3/3,The use of control
20、 channel allows mobiles to determine when and for how long to power off A mobile can power off when: It has no packets to transmit and a neighbor begins transmitting a packet not destined for it It does have packets to transmit but at least one neighbor-pair is communicating The length of power off
21、time is determined through the use of a probe protocol (Singh and Raghavendra, 1998),LLC Sublayer,Is responsible for the error control The two most common techniques for the error control are Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) and Forward Error Correction (FEC) Both waste network bandwidth and power res
22、ources due to retransmissions and greater overhead,LLC Sublayer,Recent research has addressed low-power error control and several energy efficient link layer protocols have been proposed: Adaptive Error Control with ARQ Adaptive Error Control with ARQ/FEC Combination Adaptive Power Control and Codin
23、g Scheme,Adaptive Error Control with ARQ 1/3,Three guidelines: Avoid persistence in retransmitting data Trade off number of retransmission attempts for probability of successful transmission Inhibit transmission when channel conditions are poor,Adaptive Error Control with ARQ 2/3,Works as normal unt
24、il the transmitter detects an error due to the lack of a received ACK. Then the protocol enters a probing mode in which a probing packet is transmitted every t slots. Probe packet contains only header This mode continues until an ACK is received. Then the protocol returns to normal mode and continue
25、s transmission from where it was interrupted,Adaptive Error Control with ARQ 3/3,Analysis results show that under slow fading channel conditions it is superior to standard ARQ in terms of energy efficiency There is an optimal transmission power in respect to energy efficiency Decreasing the transmis
26、sion power results in an increased number of transmission attempts but may be more efficient than attempting to maximize the throughput,Adaptive Error Control with ARQ/FEC Combination,Each packet stream is associated with service quality parameters (packet size, QoS requirements) maintains its own t
27、ime-adaptive customized error control scheme Error control scheme is a combination of an ARQ scheme (Go-Back-N, CACK, SACK, etc.) and a FEC scheme modifies as channel conditions change over time,Adaptive Power Control and Coding Scheme,Each transmitter operates at a power-code pair Power level lies
28、between a specified minimum and maximum The error code is chosen from a finite set At each iteration (timeframe): Receiver checks the word error rate (WER) If the WER lies within an acceptable range, power-code is retained, otherwise a new power-code pair is computed by the transmitter Variations of
29、 algorithm include average WER,Network Layer,Energy efficient routing algorithms for ad hoc networks Does not apply to infrastructure networks because all traffic is routed through BS Two different approaches: Frequent topology updates Improved routing Consumes bandwidth Infrequent topology updates
30、Decreased update messages Inefficient routing and occasional missed packets,Network Layer,Typical metrics for ad hoc routing protocols Shortest-hop Shortest-delay Locality-stability However they may result in the overuse of energy resources of a small set of mobiles decreasing mobile and network lif
31、e,Network Layer example,Using shortest-hop routing, traffic from A to D will always be routed through E Es energy reserves will be drained faster and then F will be disconnected from network A to D traffic should also use the B-C path extending networks life,Network Layer: Unicast Traffic 1/6,Five d
32、ifferent metrics Energy consumed per packet Time to network partition Given a network topology, a minimal set of mobiles exist such that their removal will cause the network to partition The traffic in that mobiles should be divided in such a way that they drain their power at equal rates,Network La
33、yer: Unicast Traffic 2/6,Variance in power level across mobiles All mobiles are equal and remain powered-on together for as long as possible Cost per packet Routes should be created such that mobiles with depleted energy reserves do not lie on many routes Maximum mobile cost By minimizing the cost e
34、xperienced by a mobile when routing a packet through it significant reductions in the maximum mobile cost result,Network Layer: Unicast Traffic 3/6,The goal is to minimize all the metrics except for the second which should be maximized Shortest-cost routing protocol is more appropriate instead of sh
35、ortest-hop So although packets may be routed through longer paths, the paths contain mobiles that have greater amounts of energy reserves Also routing traffic through lightly loaded mobiles conserves energy because it minimizes contention and retransmission,Network Layer: Unicast Traffic 4/6,Simulat
36、ion results showed no extra delay over the traditional shortest-hop metric This is true because congested paths are often avoided However this approach requires that every mobile have knowledge of every other mobile and the links between them This creates significant communication overhead and incre
37、ased delay,Network Layer: Unicast Traffic 5/6,Stojmenovic and Lin proposed localized routing algorithms These algorithms depend only on information about the source location, the location of neighbors and location of the destination This information is collected through GPS receivers which are inclu
38、ded in every mobile,Network Layer: Unicast Traffic 6/6,They proposed a new power-cost metric Incorporates both a mobiles lifetime and distance based power metrics Three power-aware localized routing algorithms were developed Power Minimize total amount of power utilized when transmitting a packet Co
39、st Avoid mobiles with low battery reserves Power-cost Combination of the other two,Network Layer: Broadcast Traffic 1/4,Each mobile needs to receive a packet only once Intermediate mobiles are required to retransmit the packet Key idea: allow each mobiles radio to turn off after receiving a packet i
40、f its neighbors have already received a copy of the packet,Network Layer: Broadcast Traffic 2/4,In traditional networks broadcast technique is a simple flooding algorithm No global information topology gathered Requires little control overhead Completes with minimum number of hops Not suitable for w
41、ireless networks because many intermediate nodes must retransmit packets needlessly It is more beneficial to spend some energy in gathering topology information in order to determine the most efficient broadcast tree,Network Layer: Broadcast Traffic 3/4,A broadcast approach is presented in (Singh et
42、 al., 1999) The tree is constructed starting from the source and expanding to the neighbor that has the lowest cost per outgoing degree Mobile costs continuously change so broadcast transmissions may traverse different trees Simulations showed very little difference in delay but 20% or better in ene
43、rgy consumption,Network Layer: Broadcast Traffic 4/4,In (Wieselthier et al., 2000) is presented an algorithm for determining the minimum-energy tree There exists an optimal point in the trade-off between reaching greater number of mobiles in a single hop by using higher transmission power versus rea
44、ching fewer mobiles but using lower power levels,Transport Layer,TCP was designed initially for wired networks Physical links are fairly reliable Packet loss is random in nature Over a wireless link it degrades significantly It resorts to a larger number of retransmissions and frequently invoke cong
45、estion control measures because it confuses link errors and loss as channel congestion The increased retransmissions consume battery energy and bandwidth,Transport Layer,Various schemes have been proposed Split connection protocols Link-layer protocols End-to-end protocols,Split connection protocols
46、 1/2,Split connection protocols 2/2,Completely hide the wireless link from the wired network by splitting each TCP connection into two separate connections at the BS The second one may use modified versions of TCP that enhance performance over the wireless channel,Link-layer protocols 1/2,Link-layer
47、 protocols 2/2,Hides link related losses from the TCP source Uses a combination of local retransmissions and FEC over the wireless link Local retransmissions use techniques that are tuned to the characteristics of the wireless channel,End-to-end protocols,Include modified versions of TCP that are mo
48、re sensitive to the wireless environment Uses mechanisms such as SACK allow the TCP source to recover from multiple packet losses ELN Aid the TCP source to distinguish between congestion and other forms of loss,Energy Consumption Analysis of TCP 1/4,The energy consumption of Tahoe, Reno and New Reno
49、 is analyzed in (Zorzi and Rao, 2000) Efficiency is defined as the average number of successful transmissions per energy unit Results demonstrate that error correlation affects the energy performance congestion control algorithms of TCP allow for greater energy savings by backing off and wait during
50、 error bursts energy efficiency is sensitive to the version of TCP,Energy Consumption Analysis of TCP 2/4,The same versions of TCP were studied in (Tsaoussidis et al., 2000a) in terms of energy/throughput tradeoffs Results showed that no single version is most appropriate within wired/wireless heterogeneous networks the key to balancing energy and throughput is through the error control mechanism They proposed a modified version of TCP, referred to as TCP-Probing in (Tsaoussidis and Badr, 2000),
