1、Introduction to Economics,Udayan Roy,Introduction to Economics,What is economics? What is the use of economics? What are economists expected to do? How do economists do what they are expected to do? Why does the economists method sometimes fail? What is macroeconomics? What is microeconomics?,What i
2、s Economics?,Economics is the study of our responses to scarcity, and the consequences of those responses. Scarcity is usually defined in economics as the fact that we cant always get what we want.,What is the Use of Economics?,Scarcity compels us to come up with less wasteful ways of running our so
3、cieties. We all want progress and we all want to reduce hunger, poverty and inequality. But our resources are finite. Therefore, we cant afford to run our societies in wasteful and inefficient ways. Thats where good economic policies have a crucial role to play. Thats where the economist can make a
4、contribution.,Wasted Resources: Stuck in Traffic,We waste a lot of time stuck in traffic Economists would want to find a way to reduce this waste of time Building more roads may not always be possible, may not solve the problem, and would be costly in any case Charging car owners for the use of a ro
5、ad may be the way to go Investing in or subsidizing public transport is another option,It is the economists job to list the options available and to predict the likely costs and benefits of each option,Wasted Resources: Unemployment,What can we do to reduce this waste of resources? Cut taxes to enco
6、urage people to go shopping? Build more roads and bridges? Make overtime work illegal? Limit imports?,It is the economists job to list the options available and to predict the likely costs and benefits of each option,Ethical Imperatives: Health Care,How can we help the 50.7 million people who have n
7、o health insurance?,It is the economists job to list the options available and to predict the likely costs and benefits of each option,Build government-run hospitals like the VA system for veterans?,Use taxpayers funds to help the uninsured buy private health insurance?,Allow the import of cheaper d
8、rugs?,Cut the length of drug patents?,Make it easier for foreign doctors to work here?,Ethical Imperatives: Inequality,How can we ensure that incomes are more equally shared, if thats what we want? Raise taxes on the rich? Invest in and subsidize higher education? Change existing laws to strengthen
9、labor unions?,It is the economists job to list the options available and to predict the likely costs and benefits of each option,What Are Economists Expected to Do?,As we have just seen, when asked specific policy-related questions, the economist has to think hard and : Identify the list of the opti
10、ons available to society, and Make predictions of the consequencescosts and benefitsthat would follow from each of those options. The democratic process must then decide which option to pursue.,When Economic Policies Go Wrong,Joseph Stalin Mao Zedong Clearly, the stakes are very high in getting our
11、economic policies right.,When Economic Policies Go WrongStalin,The Soviet leader Stalin is believed to have caused about 40 million deaths during the 1930s in the then Soviet Union in an attempt to collectivize agriculture. For more on Stalins policies and their effects see Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet
12、 Collectivization and the Terror-Famine by Robert Conquest, Oxford University Press, New York, NY, 1986, ISBN 0195051807.,When Economic Policies Go WrongMao,During 1958-61 there was a famine in China that is estimated to have killed 30 million people. Those deaths were largely due to the Chinese lea
13、der Mao Zedongs failed economic policygrandly called “the great leap forward”of the forced industrialization of Chinas agricultural economy. For more on Maos policies and the famine that they caused see Hungry Ghosts: Maos Secret Famine by Jasper Becker, Free Press, New York, NY, 1996, ISBN: 0684834
14、57X.,Predictions: Examples,If income tax rates are increased, the nations unemployment rate will increase. If Florida has a severe winter, the price of orange juice will increase. If the price of imported oil goes up, the nations gross domestic product will decrease. If the tax per airline ticket is
15、 increased, the price of hotel rooms will decrease.,How Do Economists Do What They Are Expected to Do?,Economists make simplifying assumptions This helps them make logical predictions about the likely consequences of different policy options Economists usually disagree with each other They try to us
16、e data to sort out their disagreements If all goes well, economists may come up with unambiguous and useful advice for policy makers.,Simplifying Assumptions,An actual economy is extremely complex. So, it is hard to think about how it would respond to, say, an increase in income tax rates. Therefore
17、, it would be hard to make even a theoretical prediction of a tax hikes effect on, say, the unemployment rate Remember, this is the sort of prediction that the nation might need. So economists will have to make simplifying assumptions in their analyses. They will have to imagine a simpler economy be
18、cause It might be easier to make a prediction for the simplified imaginary economy than the complex actual economy. (More),Simplifying Assumptions,These simplifying assumptions must be very carefully chosen so that the hypothetical simplified economy is not too dissimilar to the actual economy, and
19、is, at the same time, easier to analyze than the actual economy.,Disagreements Among Economists,There is no universally accepted way for economists to decide which simplifying assumptions are the most appropriate. Different economists when asked the same questionsay, How will an income tax hike affe
20、ct unemployment?may make different simplifying assumptions in their analyses. Therefore, they may end up making different predictions.,Data Helps to Sort Out Disagreements,When economists disagree, the right kind of historical evidence may help them decide which economists prediction to trust. A lar
21、ge part of the economists job is to dig up evidence from the past, and use the evidence to test the clashing theories that various economists may propose.,We have just seen that different economists may give different answers (predictions) for the same question. Those disagreements cant always be so
22、rted out. (Why?) This leaves the general public puzzled and annoyed.,Why Does the Economists Method Sometimes Fail?,Economists Disagreements Cant Always Be Sorted Out,Often there isnt enough data. When there isnt enough data, one may not be able to choose between clashing theories or predictions. Ec
23、onomists generally cant do experiments. Even if there is a lot of historical data, there is no guarantee that a study of the past will help in identifying the best theory or prediction. If you toss a coin ten thousand times, you would be no better at predicting the ten thousand and first toss as you
24、 were at predicting the first toss.,What Is Macroeconomics? What Is Microeconomics?,Macroeconomics deals with questions about variables that describe the economy of an entire nation. (More) Microeconomics deals with questions related to individual economic agents, such as households and firms. (More
25、),Macroeconomics,Macroeconomics deals with issues related to data that give summary descriptions of the economy of an entire nation. A macroeconomist would ponder questions such as, what would happen to Uzbekistans unemployment rate if Japan suddenly stops trading with Uzbekistan and what policy sho
26、uld the government of Uzbekistan then follow? The focus would always be on Uzbekistan as a whole.,Microeconomics,Microeconomics deals with questions related to economic variables that describe a sub-national entity, typically individual economic agents, such as households and firms.,Macro and Micro Are Related,One cannot really do macroeconomics without simultaneously doing microeconomics. One cannot analyze an economy without studying the behavior of the individual economic units that make up that economy. However, in macroeconomics the microeconomic underpinnings are de-emphasized.,
