1、articulation,a specific, gradually developing motor skill that involves mainly peripheral motor processesinvolved in the planning and executionof sequences of overlapping gestures that result in speech,phoneme,the smallest unit within a language that is able, when combined with other units,to establ
2、ish word meanings and distinguish among them.,phonology,the study of the meaningful units of sound within a language; the description of the systems and patterns of phonemes that occur in a language.,Articulatory phonetics: basic terms,vowels: tense = /I, e, 3, u, o, O/ rounded = /u, U, o, O, 3/ con
3、sonants: sonorants (semivowels=nasals, liquids, glides) obstruents (stops, fricatives, affricates) organ, place, manner, voicing monophthong,diphthong (onglide,offglide),Place-manner-voice,Voiced b,d,g,v,D, z, Z, dZ, m, n, N, l, r, w, jVoiceless p, t, k, f, T, s, S, tS, h,Place-manner-voice categori
4、es:,Place labial p,b,f,v,m,w dental T,D alveolar t,d,s,z,n,l postalveolar S,Z,tS,dZ palatal j,r velar k,g,N glottal h,Place-manner-voice,Manner stop-plosives: p,b,t,d,k,g fricatives: f,v,T,D,s,z,S,Z,h affricates: tS, dZ nasals: m,n,N liquids: l, r glides: w, j,Coarticulation: Assimilation/harmony pr
5、ocesses,Contact assimilation remote assimilations progressive assimilations regressive assimilations total assimilations partial assimilations,Syllable structure:,peak = most prominent, acoustically intenseonset = syllable releasecoda = syllable arrest,Assessing medial position,Goldman Fristoe-2 Tes
6、t of Articulation: d in “window” = onset of unstressed, opensyllable, preceded by consonant made insame place of articulation (CVCCV) T in “bathtub” = coda of stressed syllable,followed by onset of closed syllable (CVCCVC) n in “banana” = onset of stressed, open syllable in a trisyllabic word;redupl
7、icated syllables (CVCVCV) l in “balloons = onset of stressed, closed syllable with bilabial b and rounded u (CVCVCC),Diacritics,dentalization palatalization velarization lateralization partial devoicing partial voicing aspiration,Diacritics (continued),unaspiration unreleased syllabic consonant labi
8、alization nonlabialization derhotacization rounding/unrounding,Diacritics (continued),raised lowered advanced retracted nasalized glottal stop flap,Distinctive features,“The distinctive features of an individual phoneme would be those aspects of the process of articulation and their acoustic consequ
9、ences that serve to contrast one phoneme from another.”,Distinctive features of phonemes,Major Class features (sonorant, consonantal, vocalic) Cavity features (coronal, anterior, distributed, nasal, lateral, high, low, back, round) Manner features (continuant, delayed release, tense) Source features
10、 (heightened subglottal pressure, voicing, stridency) Prosodic features,Chomsky & Halles Distinctive Features,1. vocalic/nonvocalic 2. consonantal/nonconsonantal 3. coronal/noncoronal 4. anterior/nonanterior 5. high/nonhigh 6. back/nonback 7. low/nonlow 8. nasal/nonnasal 9. round/nonround 10. contin
11、uant/noncontinuant 11. tense/nontense 12. voice/nonvoice 13. strident/nonstrident,Distinctive features versus organ, place, voice and manner,p and b; voiceless and voiced bilabial stops replace t and d; voiceless and voiced coronal alveolar stops replace,f and v; v.l.v.l.& v. apico- dental fricative
12、s.,Distinctive feature versus organ, place, voice, manner,p,b = (-)strident (-)continuant t,d = (-) strident (-)continuant (+) diffuse,f,v = (+)strident (+)continuant s,z = (+)strident S,Z= (+)strident s,z = (+)continuant S,Z= (+)continuant T,D=(+)continuant S,Z =(-) diffuse,Distinctive feature syst
13、ems focused attention on the components of phonemes rather than the production of phonemes.,Another important aspect of distinctive features is naturalness versus markedness: natural = simple to produce, occuring often e.g., p marked = dfficult to produce, occurring less often, e.g., tS,Phonological
14、ly disordered children tend to substitute more unmarked/natural classes for marked/unnatural classes,Voiceless obstruents for sonorants obstruents for sonorants stops for fricatives fricatives for affricates low front vowels for other sounds close-tense vowels for open-lax vowels anterior consonants
15、 for other consonants simple consonants for complex consonants,Generative phonology Five features of phonemes:,Major class features: is it a consonant, vowel or inbetween? Cavity features: where is it produced? Manner of articulation features: how is it produced? Source features whats the energy sou
16、rce? Prosodic features,Phonological rules for pluralizing,Add underlying representation /z/ e.g., dOg dOgz maintain same voice as root word ending e.g., kt kts if underlying representation and root word ending are made in the same place of articulation, add a schwa.,Notation for phonological rules:,
17、 becomes or “can be rewritten as” / “in the environment of” indicates location of changed segment #indicates the beginning of a word #indicates the end or final word position VV is intervocallic word position indicates the deletion of a segment C indicates a consonant segment CC(C) indicates two or
18、three consonants,t/s or st; d/z or zd: in distinctive feature “talk” = +cons +cons +cor +cor +ant +ant +cons -cons +strid -strid (where #and #),Natural phonology,Patterns of speech are governed by an innate, universal set of phonological processes.,“A phonological process,is a mental operation that
19、applies in speech to substitute for a class of sounds or sound sequences presenting a common difficulty to the speech capacity of the individual.” Stampe (1979),Phonological processes are innate and universal; Phonological processes are easier for the child to produce and are substituted for sounds,
20、 sound classes, or sound sequences when the childs motor capacities do not yet allow their norm realization; All children begin with innate speech patterns but must progress to the language specific system that characterizes their native language.,Phonological processes are used to constantly revise
21、 existing differences between the innate patterns and the adult norm production; Children go through developmental steps until the goal of adult phonology is reached; Disordered phonology is seen as an inability to realize this “natural” process of goal- oriented adaptive change.,Mechanisms for revi
22、sions, as children work toward adult norms:,Limitation e.g., first stops for all fricatives and then through limitation, stops for all sibilants Ordering random substitutions become orderly Suppression process(es) no longer used,Syllable Structure Processes,Cluster reduction Reduplication total or p
23、artial Weak syllable deletion Final consonant deletion Epenthesis,Substitution Processes,Consonant cluster substitution fronting labialization alveolarization stopping affrication deaffrication,Denasalization gliding of liquids/fricatives vowelization derhotacization voicing Devoicing Stridency dele
24、tion,Assimilation Processes (Harmony),Labial assimilation Velar assimilation Nasal assimilation Liquid assimilation,Use of phonological processes by phonologically impaired children,Persisting normal processes chronological mismatch systematic sound preferences unusual or idiosyncratic processes var
25、iable use of processes,Some segments (or groups of segments) may have a controlling influence on others; there may be a hierarchical arrangement between segments and other linguistic units.,Non-linear or multilinear phonologies are a group of phonological theories that study the interaction between
26、various levels of phonological and linguistic control,Principles of movement development applied to oral mechanism,Development is a continuous process. The sequence remains the same, although the rate may vary. Movements develop from head to tail. Gross motor precedes fine motor control. Stability a
27、llows for advanced and accurate mobility.,Principles of movement development applied to oral mechanism (cont.),Movements develop from proximal to distal Movements develop from medial to lateral Abnormal structure leads to adjustment in motor function Abnormal tone/movement in one part of the body le
28、ads to adjustment in motor function somewhere else.,Principles of movement development applied to oral mechanism (cont.),Early learning is a sensorimotor experience Complex motor activities are monitored through continuous sensory feedback. Rapid, precise sequential movements are dependent upon the
29、ability to perform discrete movements. Movement patterns are based upon economy of movement.,Prelinguistic stages,Birth - two months: Reflexive/vegetative (quasi-resonant nuclei) 2 - 4 mo: cooing and laughter 4 - 6 mo: vocal play 6 months: canonical babbling reduplicated and nonreduplicated 10 month
30、s: jargon/variegated babbling,Predictive value of babbling:,Less language growth is seen in children with more vocoid babble compared to those with more contoid babble; greater language growth is related to greater babble complexity greater language growth is related to increased diversity of concoi
31、d productions,VocablesPhonetically consistent forms (PCFs)Proto-wordsQuasi-words,THE FIRST WORD,an entity of relatively stable phonetic form that is produced consistently by the child in a particular context and is recognizably related to the adultlike word form of a particular language.,Acquisition
32、 of vowel sounds,first 50 word stage: a, i, u preschool stage reached by age 2: a, i ,u, o, V, reached by age 3: E, O reached by age 4: I, e, , U consensus is that vowels are in by 3-4 years,Developmental sequence of vowels,Group 1: early developing vowels are i A u o V Group 2: intermediate vowels
33、are U O Group 3: later developing vowels are e E I 3,Acquisition of consonants during the first 50 word stage:,Best guess: b, m, p, t, d, k, g, S, n, w, h significant individual variability some children show sound preferences,Potentially intrusive variables:,Isolated words or connected speech lengt
34、h of words stress patterns word familiarity number of words tested for each position effects of sounds in words - harmony conditions of data collection,Summary of Vihman & Greenlee (1987) Subjects were ten three-year olds:,Stops and fricatives T by all subjects 50% substituted r and l and used palat
35、al fronting ( Ss ) 2/10 demonstrated their own particular style of phonological acquisition 73% judged as unintelligible, with range of 54-80% the more complex the syntax, the worse the articulation,Development of consonant clusters Age Initial Final 4 pl, bl, kl, gl mp, mpt, mps, Nk pr, br, tr, dr,
36、 kr lp, lt, rm, rt, rk tw, kw pt, ks, sm, sn, sp, st, sk ft 5 gr, fl, fr, str lb, lf rd, rf, rn 6 skw lk rb, rg, rT, rdZ,rst rtS, nt, nd, nT 7 spl, spr, skr sk, st, kst sl, sw lT, lz Sr, Tr dZd 8 kt, sp,Processes disappearing by age 3:,Weak syllable deletion Final consonant deletion Doubling (repeti
37、tion of a word, gogo Reduplication Diminutization (use of diminutives) Velar fronting Consonant assimilation Prevocalic voicing,Processes persisting after age 3:,Cluster reduction Epenthesis Gliding Vocalization, e.g., pipo for “people” Stopping Depalatalization Final devoicing,Haelsig and Madison (
38、1986) 50 three, four and five year olds,3-3 used Cluster Reduction, Weak Syllable Deletion, Glottal Replacement, Labial Assimilation, Gliding Liquids 4 -5 used: Weak Syllable Deletion, Cluster Reduction Rarely used by any age: Velar Assimilation, PreVocalic Voicing, Gliding of Fricatives, Affricatio
39、n, Denasalization Greatest reduction in processes occurred between 3 and 4 Deletion of final consonants, stopping, fronting and gliding of liquids reduced by 50% between 3 and 4.,Phonological processes with vowels:,Vowel backing and vowel fronting centralization and decentralization vowel raising an
40、d vowel lowering diphthongization and monophthongization vowel harmony: complete harmony tenseness harmony height vowel harmony,Correlational factors describing learning to read and learning to speak:,Poor readers have difficulty analyzing words into syllables and sounds poor readers have poor memor
41、ies of phonologically coded material poor readers have difficulty in repetition tasks children with speech/language problems have poor phonological awareness and, if older than 5.6, reading.,Assessment = appraisal + diagnosis,Case historyParent interviewSchool/medical recordsEvaluation by the clinic
42、ian,Articulation tests to be presented,Templin-Darley Test of Articulation Photo Articulation Test Fisher-Logemann Test of Articulation Goldman-Fristoe 2 Arizona Test of Articulatory Proficiency Contextual Test of Articulation McDonald Deep Test of Articulation,Phonological tests to be presented,Kah
43、n-Lewis Phonological Analysis 2 Phonological Process Analysis Hodson Assessment of Phonological Patterns- 3 Bankson-Bernthal Test of Phonology Clinical Assessment of Articulation and Phonology,Contextual Test of Articulation Aase, et al., 2000,not an initial test procedure /s/, /l/, /k/, /r/, /3/, 1
44、5 two-consonant clusters /s/ and /l/ tested 36 times each; /k/ tested 39 times; /3/ tested 9 times /sm, sn, sl, st, sk, sp, pl, bl, kl, kr, tr, dr, br, mp, nt/,Index of severity for children with emerging language skills,Number of different consonants in 10 minute sample: 18-24 months: norm = 14 sma
45、ll express. vocab = 6 24-36 months: norm = 18 small express.vocab = 10,Syllable structure level use 20-50 vocalizations level one (p.150) level two level three norm at 24 mo = 2.2 small express.vocab = 1.7,Word prevocalic nucleus inter/post nucleus inter/post Int. Prod. Int. prod. Int. prod. Int. pr
46、od. Int. prod. house h h au au s 2 stove st d ou ou v 2 finger f b I I N n g 2 jump dZ d V V mp mp church tS t 3 3 tS 2,Hallmarks of phonetic disorders:,Preservation of phonemic contrasts even subtle contrasts may signal phonetic (not phonemic) difficulties Peripheral, motor-based problems look for
47、consistent pattern or explanations of inconsistencies lack of cognitive/linguistic problems lack of perceptually based problems,Variables contributing to severity ratings: Connolly (1986),Loss of phonemic contrasts loss of contrasts in specific contexts # of meaning contrasts lost difference between
48、 target and realization consistency of target-realization relationship frequency of abnormality listener familiarity with clients speech communicative context,Determining intelligibility (Shipley, 1992),The number of sound errors the type of sound errors inconsistency of errors vowel errors rate of
49、speech atypical prosody length and linguistic complexity of words used insufficient vocal intensity dysfluencies,Determining intelligibility (continued),Lack of gestures or paralinguistic cues the testing environment the clients anxiety the clients lack of familiarity with stimulus materials the clients level of fatigue the clinicians ability to understand “less intelligible speech the clinicians familiarity with the client and the context,
