1、BILINGUALISM AND DIGLOSSIA IN SPAIN,Defining Individual Bilingualism,What is bilingualism? Definitions: Weinreich (1968) “The practise of alternately using two languages will be called bilingualism, and the person involved, bilingual.” Diebold (1964) “Incipient bilingualism” Bloomfield (1933) “In th
2、e cases where this perfect foreign-language learning is not accompanied by loss of the native language, it results in bilingualism, native like control of two languages.” Mackey (1970) “It seems obvious that if we are to study the phenomenon of bilingualism we are forced to consider it as something
3、entirely relativeWe shall therefore consider bilingualism as the alternate use of two or more languages by the same individual.” Factors to take into account (Mackey): Degree, function, alternation, interference.,Examples,1. A 2yo who is beginning to talk, speaking English to one parent and Welsh to
4、 the other. 2. A Danish immigrant in New Zealand who has not had contact with Danish for the last 40 years. 3. A schoolchild from an Italian immigrant family in the USA who increasingly uses English both at home and outside but whose older relatives address him in Italian only. 4. A young graduate w
5、ho has been studying French for eleven years. 5. A personal interpreter of an important public figure. 6. The Turkish wife of a Turkish immigrant in Germany who can converse orally in German but cannot read or write it. 7. A Japanese airline pilot who uses English for most of his professional commun
6、ication. 8. A fervent Catalanist who uses Catalan at home and work, but is exposed to Spanish in the media etc and is fully conversant in both.Bilingualism as a CONTINUUM,Describing Individual Bilingualism,AGE Early bilingualism, late bilingualism CONTEXT Natural/ascribed bilingualism, achieved/seco
7、ndary bilingualism RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SIGN AND MEANING Coordinated bilingualism, subordinate bilingualism, compound bilingualism ORDER AND CONSEQUENCE Incipient and ascendant bilingualism, recessive bilingualism COMPETENCE Maximalist/minimalist views, semilingualism USE/FUNCTION ATTITUDE Conscious
8、ness of Bilingualism,Societal Multilingualism,Historical Factors: Military conquest, occupation, annexation Political marriages and succession arrangements Colonisation Migrations and immigration Federation Contemporary Factors Neo-colonialism Present-day Immigration Language Promotion International
9、isation,Societal Bilingualism Cont.,Horizontal Bilingualism Territorial monolingualism Territorial bilingualism Instability,Diglossia & Charles Ferguson,Diglossia basic definition: Use of two languages/varieties of a language in one speech community but in different situations.,Charles A. Ferguson (
10、Word, 1959) created English word diglossia from French diglossie (no English word before this to separate diglossia from standard bilingualism),FERGUSONS CHARACTERISTIC FEATURES OF DIGLOSSIA FUNCTION:Which language is used whenHigh language (H) e.g. Church sermon, political speech, news broadcastLow
11、 language (L) e.g. conversations amongst family/friends, cartoon stripMixing up the uses speaker becomes object of ridicule. PRESTIGE:H seen as superior (more beautiful & logical) maybe as religious texts were written in itCan lead to snobbery. Contemporary writers use words of old H to sound intell
12、ectual,Acquisition:L taught at home mother tongueH is taught in formal education superposed children can speak L better than H and write H better than L!Before standardisation at least, H has dictionaries, vocabulary guides and a set grammar; L has no unified grammar and may have lots of varieties w
13、ithin it Grammar & vocabulary range of H, even after standardisation = more complexStability of Diglossia: With illiteracy in society, diglossia can live for centuries / forever Widespread literacy can lead to unification of the 2 languages problem - which one to choose as base?,DIGLOSSIA: a relativ
14、ely stable language situation in which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language (which may include a standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and respected body of written lit
15、erature, either of an earlier period or in another speech community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for ordinary conversationCharles A. Ferguson,Fergusons ideas mainly still stand som
16、e outdated and have been expandedJoshua Fishmanbiglossia diglossia involving two completely separate languagesdigraphia H is for written use, L is for conversational usePauwelsinterlingual diglossia - 2 different languages intralingual diglossia - both derived from same languagediglossia as a contin
17、uum ranging from rigid diglossia (clearly defined codes/situations for use) to fluid diglossia (lots of overlapping of use)FasoldDouble-nested diglossia two Hs, one L (lower H acts as H and L)Polyglossia more than 2 languages(Code-switching 2 languages used in one situation/sentence),Other Theorists
18、 views / Types of Diglossia,Language Choice and Domains,(Ferguson would argue this is societal bilingualism and not diglossia)LANGUAGE CHOICE:GROUP age, religion, sexSITUATION formality-informality, status equality-inequalityROLE RELATIONS e.g. mother-daughter (both as speaker & listener)TOPIC can o
19、verrule the 3 factors aboveDOMAINS:e.g. family, playground and street, school, church, military (Schmidt-Rohr) LANGUAGE SHIFT:can occur with socio-political changes over time,RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BILINGUALISM & DIGLOSSIA (Joshua Fishman),BILINGUALISM AND DIGLOSSIA:occurs when definite roles (of pres
20、tige) are established in a societyeveryone understands both (generally)DIGLOSSIA WITHOUT BILINGUALISM:in past or in less developed countries with great social divideeach group doesnt fully understand the other but have no need toBILINGUALISM WITHOUT DIGLOSSIA:in societies with social unrest or chang
21、e (e.g. immigrant influx in Western society during industrialization era)taught native language for work this used at home and their native language bought to work pidgin versions of both languages; inevitable language shiftNEITHER BILINGUALISM NOR DIGLOSSIA:in small, isolated communities (but rare)
22、 with no social hierarchy or immigrationstill words people dont recognize (e.g. words used by young people to old people),Galician History,12th 14th century Golden Years, present in all formal domains 16th 18th century Dark Ages, entirely absent from formal domains 19th century Renaissance, won back
23、 some areas of formal use 1983 Statute of Autonomy and Law of Linguistic Normalisation, officially present alongside Spanish in all formal domains,Galician Speakers,Highly proficient Galician the language of preference Only in oral communication Written communication improving through education Old,
24、 lower classes, rural, less educated Negative image Less social success,Galician Usage,Code change Education Professional/economic interest Respect/courtesy Social prestige Informal/unofficial social contexts Classic diglossic situation,Education, Church, Media,Education Increased Galician language
25、proficiency Degalicianise Galician speakers Though important for status and survival Church Prestige and influence Mass predominantly taken in Spanish,Media Reflect and condition sociolinguistic behaviour State-owned TV/radio Spanish Local TV/radio Galician Daily press Spanish Advertising Spanish,Co
26、nclusion,Classic example Diglossia Legal provisions proficiency and positive attitude Galician still seen as the low language (L) and Spanish the high language (H) Sociolinguistic inequality Outlook bleak,Examples of bilingualism and diglossia in the Basque Country,Euskalherria consists of three pri
27、ncipal areas: the Basque Autonomous Community (BAC), made up of Gipuzkoa, Araba, BizkaiaNavarra the three French provinces of Iparralde.,The Basque Autonomous Community Statute of Autonomy 1979 Castilian and Basque share co-official statusHigh rate of bilingualism, encouraged by institutions such as
28、 the education system,However, the majority language of the BAC is Castilian.,Basque family and friendspredominantly oral situations, used informally and daily,Castilian high-status situations that required a degree of formalitye.g. academic spheres.,repression under the regime urbanisation immigrat
29、ion mean that the diglossic situation has changed.,The situation in the BAC could be best described as fragmentary bilingualism with residual diglossia in the Basque speaking districts of the BAC.,Euskaldunes: capaces de entender y hablar euskera Cuasi-euskaldunes: Con alguna competencia activa o si
30、mplemente pasiva en euskera Erdaldunes Sin ninguna competencia en euskeraSince 1991 there has been an increase of 5.3% in the number of euskaldunes in the BAC an increase of 25% in 1991 to 48% in 2001 of basque speakers in the age range 16 24,In times of rapid urbanisation, it was seen rather as an
31、annoying obstacle to geographical and social mobility. Suffered harsh repression under Francos regime Immigration - Castilians entered the BAC in the industrial revolution Drop in number of Basque speakers, in favour of Castilian,Basque became the language of the rural poor, came to represent backwa
32、rdness in an era of progress Ikastolas private schools to promote the basque language in 1960s 1982 the Law of Normalisation of the Use of the Basque Language Bilingualism Decree of 1983,In the BAC, there are three different models of bilingual education.Model A the language of instruction is Castil
33、ian Basque is taught as a second language for 3 to 5 hours a week. Model B Basque and Castilian are both used as languages of instruction Model D Basque is used as the language of instruction Castilian is taught as a subject.,Evolution of the three linguistic models at pre-university level,Model A d
34、ecline in number of students Models B and D increase in popularity,Diglossia In theory, Basque can be used in all levels of society. However, in practice, the majority of all daily interactions take place in Castilian Many dont use Basque, even if they have the capability to.,Keeping it in the famil
35、y,the linguistic behaviour of Basque speakers has changed: they now use their own language in more diverse social contexts than ever before. This, together with the language promotion efforts made by many different institutions, has contributed to an improvement in the perceived social status of Bas
36、que.,Catalonia,Population: 6,343,110 GDP :196,546million (18.7% of total Spanish GDP) Officially Bilingual Catalan is the official language of Catalonia, together with Castilian, the official language of the Spanish State. All persons have the right to use the two official languages and citizens of
37、Catalonia have the right and the duty to know them.,How Many People Understand Catalan?,Diglossia in Catalonia,Historically Industrialisation Franco Dictatorship Current situation : “the diglossic situation that was, in the past, attributed to Catalonia, has ceased to exist” Biglossia as opposed to
38、Diglossia,Catalan or not Catalan? That is the Question!,In-group/ intergroup interaction It is proper to Speak Catalan only to those who are know to be Catalan Location Apperence Accent,Fa cara de catal?,Bilingualism in catalonia,Involuntary Bilingualism Prefer to use their own language but can spea
39、k Castilian Natural Bilingualism Achieved / Secondary Bilingualism Passive bilingualism,Conclusions,Catalonia is a bilingual region re-enforced by the state (language planning) Probably more appropriate to talk about biglossia or interlingual diglossia Natural, achieved/secondary, passive and involu
40、ntary bilingualism. Catalan is a language of prestige and is promoted as such by the Catalan people. Standardised form of Catalan Some slight regional variation but there is a standard form which also prevents diglossia.,Conclusion,Bilingualism,IndividualSocietalThere is no single definition but ins
41、tead a scale of different interpretations of what constitutes bilingualism,Diglossia,Two languages co existing within a society with completely separate functionsDifferent statuses for the two languages,Spanish Examples,Only truly a state of diglossia in Galicia Less distinction between Castilian an
42、d the minority language in Catalonia and the Basque Country Galicia the language with the least prestige. Perhaps why it is in the most danger?,Bibliography,Hoffman, C. (1991) An Introduction to Bilingualism (Longman : New York) Romaine, S. (1995) Bilingualism Second Edition (Blackwell Publishing :
43、Oxford) Wei, L. (2000) The Bilingualism Reader (Routledge : London) Hudson, A. (2002) Outline of a Theory of Diglossia in International Journal of the Sociology of Language www.international .ucla.edu Pradilla, M. (2001) The Catalan-speaking Communities in Mulitilinguaism in Spain ed. Turell, M (Mul
44、tilingual Matters: Clevedon) Woolard, K. (1989) Double Talk: Bilingualism and the Politics of Ethnicity in Catalonia (Stanford University Press : Stanford) Beswick, J (2007) Regional Nationalism In Spain: Language Use and Ethnic Identity in Galicia (Multilingual Matters : Clevedon) 2001 Spanish Cens
45、us www.ine.es Lasangabaster, D. and Huguet, A. (2007) Multilingualism in European Bilingual Contexts Language Use and Attitudes (Multilingual Matters : Clevedon) Wright, S. (1996) Monolingualism and Bilingualism Lessons from Canada and Spain (Multilingual Matters : Clevedon) www.eustat.es Etxebarria, M El Bilinguismo En El Estado Espaol (Bilbao) Skutnabb-Kangas, T (1981) Bilingualism or not: The Education of Minorities (Multilingual Matters: Clevedon),
