1、,Grammar Considerations in Scientific Writing,If any man wish to write in aclear style, let him first beclear in his thoughts,Johann Wolfgang von Goethe,,Writing the First Draft,Reserve a block of time for writing (3-4 hours every day for 4-5 days). Write when your energy is high, not when you are t
2、ired or distracted. Surround yourself with everything you need to write effectively.data, drafts of figures and tables, references, computer or paper, coffee Work in a quiet place where you will not be interrupted.,Organize and Plan the Content Matters of Authorship Follow Standard Structure Build M
3、omentum and Keep it,,Building and Keeping Momentum,In scientific writing, each sentence depends on those around it and on other sections of the paper. Therefore you need to sustain momentum when writing your first draft. If you dont, youll lose your train of thought!Set realistic goals. This may be
4、1 page or 5 pages, but you want to end each session with a sense of accomplishment. End each writing session by writing into the next session. It will be easier to start writing at the next session. This will help you maintain some momentum and your train of thought. Store your work from each sessio
5、n under a new file name. Minimize distractions. Dont get stuck searching for the right word or phrase. If you cant find what you are thinking of in a minute or two, write “?” and continue on. You can fill in the blanks later. If you become bogged down and just cant move forward with a particular sec
6、tion, start working on another section.,,Write the easiest section first. For many authors, this is the Methods section.Results is often the next easiest section to write. Lay your data and figures out in the order you want to discuss it. Then writethe story of why you decided to do a particular exp
7、eriment and what theresults were.Think of each section as a separate task. For example, once the Methods iswritten, one task is done.,The Approach to Writing,,As soon as you finish writing the first draft, revise it. Revision gives you the luxury of considering specific issues on each pass. One revi
8、sion might be to establish parallel heading structures, another mightbe for conciseness, while yet another might be for clarity of figures and tables. In some paragraphs you may have written the supporting details first and themessage last. This is a natural way to write because you are discoveringw
9、hat you think. However, this type of organization is difficult to read so,during the process of revision, move the message to the beginning of the paragraph (topic sentence) and put the supporting details after the topicsentence.,Revising the First Draft,During later stages of revision look for all
10、possible ways to condense yourpaper. Omit unnecessary words, details and paragraphs. To decide whether a word, detail or paragraph is necessary, think of yourself as the reader. Would I want to read this paragraph? Would I need to readthis paragraph? Be honest. If the answer is no, omit the paragrap
11、h. Most readers prefer short, meaty and clear papers. Have the courage to makeyour paper short, meaty and clear.,,First Orders of Concern Question: The question is your main point. It is what the paper is all about. You must make sure the question is present and clear. Is your question specific enou
12、gh forthe scope of your paper? Does your paper focus on answering your question ordoes it wander? Introduction vs. Conclusion: Read your introduction and conclusion without looking at the rest of the paper. Do they match? Sometimes authors start withone question and end up with another. Be certain t
13、hat ideas in your introductionand conclusion are consistent. Otherwise your papers argument will not be consistent and your readers will be confused. Organization: Do you present ideas in a logical and clear manner? Are your main points connected and do they have a clear connection to your question?
14、 Checkto see if ideas seem disconnected or if evidence falls under the wrong topicsentence. The better your organization, the easier it will be for your reader to understand the content of your paper. Audience: Who is your audience? Is your manuscript appropriate for them? Youraudience should determ
15、ine the tone and purpose of your manuscript.,,Second Orders of Concern Topic Sentences: Does each paragraph have a topic sentence clearly stating that paragraphs main idea? If paragraphs do not have a central point, or if thecentral point is not stated in a topic sentence, your audience will not und
16、erstand the purpose of the information they are reading. If the topic sentences are present, is their relationship to your thesis clear? Support/Evidence: Does each paragraph have evidence or proof supporting the topic sentence? If a paragraph has a focus but no evidence then the point is notsupport
17、edits just opinion. Be sure to support each idea in your essay withspecific details. Documentation: Is all your evidence documented? It is plagiarism if you usequotes, paraphrasing, or other evidence without citation. Make sure all of your evidence is correctly cited using a standard citation style.
18、 Clarity: Will your essay be clear to your audience? Are all of your ideas and termsclear and well defined? Remember, writing is a form of communication limited towhat is on the page. Your readers cannot ask questions if they do not understand. Take time to explain each point. Ensure that your reade
19、r can understand exactly what you mean.,,Third Orders of ConcernGrammar, Punctuation, and Spelling: Although mechanics such as grammar, punctuation, and spelling are at the bottom of the list of concerns, they arevery necessary. If a manuscript has great ideas but cannot be understood by readers bec
20、ause of grammar, punctuation, and spelling, then the paperhas failed. Pay close attention to these details in the final drafts of your document. Voice: How would you describe your narrative voice? How you phrase your writing influences how your audience will respond to what they read. Keepyour reade
21、rs attention by avoiding the passive voice, jargon, and extra wordiness.,When should you stop revising? When you are nitpicking over things such asa word here and a comma there.Strive for perfection, but be content with success !,,Readability - Sentence Length,The optimal sentence length for most sc
22、ientific documents is 15 20 words Variation in sentence length and complexity helps to sustain reader interest If the two parts of a long sentence contain loosely- or un-connected thoughts, theyshould be split into 2 separate sentences,Example: An overly long sentence with weak connections: Exposed
23、mice developed enteric disease and exhibited 21% mortality during the first 3 weeks but controls had no enteric disease and exhibited no mortality; 20-day old exposed mice weighed 0.6 g less than controls and had a higher incidence of angular limb deformities and also had a greater incidence of rota
24、ted tibias and showed bowed tibias, while controls had a significantly higher measurement for tibial shear strength. (69 words in 1 sentence) Separated at weak connections, then edited for wordiness: Exposed mice developed enteric disease with 21% mortality during the first 3 weeks. Controls exhibit
25、ed neither enteric disease nor mortality. At 20 weeks, exposed mice weighed 0.6 g less, had more rotated and bowed tibias and angular limb deformities, and showed significantly less tibial shear strength than did controls. (44 words in 3 sentences; average 18 words per sentence),,Goals of a paragrap
26、h are to get a message across and to make the story behind the message clear.These goals can be accomplished in various ways, but the general approach is to provide an overview first, and then give details; that is, create an expectation and then fulfill it.Should be organized Should have continuity
27、Should emphasize important information,Paragraphs,Organization Give overview first, in a topic sentence. Introduce key term(s). Give details, in logically organized supporting sentences Do not omit any steps in the logic,,Limit Average Paragraph Length,Paragraph length and complexity influence reada
28、bility.An average paragraph length of about 150 words has been judged optimal formost scientific articles.Paragraphs consistently composed of 50 words or less create a text that is toochoppy.Paragraphs should generally contain at least 3 sentences; a topic sentence at the beginning, a concluding sen
29、tence at the end, and a content sentencein the middle.,Readability StatisticsTools Options Spelling and Grammar Show readability statistics,When the readability box is checked, these statistics will appear after you complete a spell check,,Continuity and Clarity in Paragraphs,Repeat key termsRepeat
30、exactlyRepeat earlyExample: Digitalis increases the contractility of the mammalian heart. Thischange in inotropic state is a result of changes in calcium flux through themuscle cell membrane.What is “inotropic state? How does it relate to the previous sentence? Theanswer is that “contractility and i
31、notropic state mean the same thing. Whyconfuse the reader with different terms?Revision: Digitalis increases the contractility of the mammalian heart. Thisincreased contractility is a result of changes in calcium flux through the muscle cell membrane.,,Revise for Clarity,Clarity can be thought of as
32、 “grace of expression”, it means going beyond technical correctness, in an effort to meet the needs and comfort of thereader.Although content of the document is more likely to determine whether it isaccepted for publication than its prose style, gracefully written text givesreaders a sense that the
33、author has mastered his or her subject.,Know the difference between generality (good) and vagueness (bad).Vague “These results have important implications for regulation of splicesosome assembly”General “Because it is involved early in the splicesosome assemblypathway and affects downstream processe
34、s, protein X is animportant regulator of splicosome assembly”,,Revise for Brevity,Have you ever received a comment like this from a journal editor or reviewer? “Shorten this manuscript considerably before resubmitting it”?,Fortunately, this can be done without removing significant material from the
35、text and in the process, the content often becomes clearer.,Example: Tamoxifen could conceivably slow the growth rate of the tumor. In doing this, a substantial protection of the tumors from the effects of cytotoxic chemotherapy might ensue. (27 words) Revised: Tamoxifen could slow the growth rate o
36、f the tumor, thus making it less sensitive to cytotoxic chemotherapy. (17 words),When you revise for brevity, clarity is often an added bonus. When clarity and brevity conflict, clarity is more important than brevity.,,Passive voice implies that the subject of a sentence is being acted upon. Active
37、voice shows the subject of the sentence directly doing the action.Active: The receptor can still bind DNA, and constitutively activates estrogen-responsive genes.(87 characters, 12 words)Passive: The receptor is still able to bind DNA and is constitutive for activation of estrogen responsive genes.
38、(102 characters, 17 words)Passive voice can be weak and boring. Most journals now prefer scientists to use active voice. After all, you did the work, and youare drawing inferences from it. It is important to be able to write in both active andpassive voice. Passive voice is often used in the methods
39、 and results sections and active voice in the more interpretive introduction and conclusion sections. Varying voicethroughout sections is seen commonly, and keeps the work faceless but attaches a personal voice to the ideas driving the work. Active voice usually requires fewer wordsand allows shorte
40、r sentences.,Active vs. Passive Voice,MDA-231 cells secrete a TGF-like activity. They contain no classical 6 kDa TGF-. They synthesize a 30 kDa protein molecule which binds to the EGF receptor. The EGF receptor mediates TGF- activity.,Connections,,MDA-231 cells secrete a TGF-like activity, but they
41、contain no classical 6 kDa TGF-. They do, however, synthesize a 30 kDa protein that binds to the EGF receptor, the receptor that mediates TGF- activity.,Shorter, but choppy and difficult for reader to see relationship betweensentences:,Longer, but smooth and easy for reader to see relationship betwe
42、ensentences:,,Hedging,“Hedging” is a way to protect your arguments or statements from unknowncontingencies. It also provides a way to avoid commitment to your ideas. However, each use of a hedging qualifier drains force from your sentence.Sometimes the result is a sentence that says nothing at all.E
43、xample:The cause of the degenerative changes is unknown but possibly one cause may be infection by a presumed parasite.One way of saying “Im not sure” is usually enough. Try to omit all but onehedging word from a sentence, unless they are needed for accuracy.Improved: Parasitic infection may cause d
44、egenerative changes.,,Parallelism,Parallel ideas are equal in logic and importance. Examples of parallelism include ideas that are joined by “and,“ “or,“ or “but“, as well as ideasthat are being compared. Parallel ideas should be written in parallel form, either in pairs or in series. Parallel form
45、is the use of the same grammatical structure for two or more parallel ideas. The value of writing parallel ideas in parallel form is that the form of the first idea prepares thereader for the form of the next idea. As a result, readers can concentrate all of theirattention on the ideas, not on the f
46、orm.,Example: Contrasting ideas Joined by “but“Cardiac output decreased by 40% butblood pressure decreased by only 10%.subject verb prepositional phrase In this example, the group of words after “but“ is in the same grammatical structure as the group of words before “but“: (subject, verb, prepositio
47、nal phrase).,,Parallel Lists,More than two ideas can be presented in parallel form. Example: We washed out the lungs five times with solution I,instilled 8-10 ml of the fluorocarbon-albumin emulsion into the trachea,and incubated the lungs in 154 mM NaCl at 37oC for 20 min. Example: The best way to
48、remove nonadherent cells wasto tip the plate at a 45o angle,to flood the top edge of the plate with 3-4 ml of medium,to remove the medium, andto repeat this procedure until almost all the floating cells were removed.An advantage of parallelism is that it allows you to avoid repetition Example: Pulse
49、 rate decreased by 40 beats/min, systolic blood pressure declined by 50mmHg, and cardiac output fell by 18%. Revisions: Pulse rate decreased by 40 beats/min, systolic blood pressure by 50 mmHg,and cardiac output by 18%. Pulse rate, systolic blood pressure, and cardiac output decreased by 40 beats/min, 50mmHg, and 18%, respectively. (not good: confusing),
