1、Designation: E 170 09Standard Terminology Relating toRadiation Measurements and Dosimetry1This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 170; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A numbe
2、r in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon () indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.INTRODUCTIONThis terminology generally covers terms that apply to radiation measurements and dosimetryassociated with energy deposition and radiation ef
3、fects, or damage, in materials caused by interactionsby high-energy radiation fields. The common radiation fields considered are X-rays, gamma rays,electrons, alpha particles, neutrons, and mixtures of these fields. This treatment is not intended to beexhaustive but reflects special and common terms
4、 used in technology and applications of interest toCommittee E10, as for example, in areas of radiation effects on components of nuclear power reactors,radiation hardness testing of electronics, and radiation processing of materials.This terminology uses recommended definitions and concepts of quant
5、ities, with units, for radiationmeasurements as contained in the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements(ICRU) Report 60 on “Fundamental Quantities and Units for Ionizing Radiation,” December 30,1998.2Those terms that are defined essentially according to the terminology of ICRU
6、Report 60 willbe followed by ICRU in parentheses. It should also be noted that the units for quantities used are thelatest adopted according to the International System of Units (SI) which are contained inAppendix X1as taken from a table in ICRU Report 33.2This terminology also uses recommended defi
7、nitions of twoISO documents3, namely “International Vocabulary of Basic and General Terms in Metrology.” (VIM,1993) and “Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement” (GUM, 1995). Those terms thatare defined essentially according to the terminology of these documents will be followed by eit
8、herVIM or GUM in parentheses.1. Referenced Documents1.1 ASTM Standards:4E 380 Practice for the Use of the International System ofUnits (SI) (The Modernized Metric System)5E 456 Terminology Relating to Quality and StatisticsE 706 Master Matrix for Light-Water Reactor PressureVessel Surveillance Stand
9、ards, E 706(0)E 722 Practice for Characterizing Neutron Energy FluenceSpectra in Terms of an Equivalent Monoenergetic NeutronFluence for Radiation-Hardness Testing of ElectronicsE 910 Test Method for Application and Analysis of HeliumAccumulation Fluence Monitors for Reactor Vessel Sur-veillance, E7
10、06 (IIIC)1.2 ISO Standards:3GUM Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measure-ment, ISO 1995VIM International Vocabulary of Basic and General Termsin Metrology, ISO 19931.3 ICRU Documents:2ICRU 33 Radiation Quantities and UnitsICRU 60 Fundamental Quantities and Units for IonizingRadiation, Decem
11、ber 30, 19981This terminology is under the jurisdiction ofASTM Committee E10 on NuclearTechnology and Applications and is the direct responsibility of SubcommitteeE10.93 on Editorial.Current edition approved June 15, 2009. Published August 2009. Originallyapproved in 1963. Last previous edition appr
12、oved in 2008 as E 170 08d.2ICRU Report 33 has been superceded by ICRU Report 60 on “FundamentalQuantities and Units for Ionizing Radiation,” December 30, 1998. Both of thesedocuments are available from International Commission on Radiation Units andMeasurements (ICRU), 7910 Woodmont Ave., Suite 800,
13、 Bethesda, MD 20814.3Available from International Organization for Standardization (ISO), 1 Rue deVarembe, Case Postale 56, CH-1211, Geneva 20, Switzerland, http:/www.iso.ch.4For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, orcontact ASTM Customer Service at serviceastm.org. For
14、Annual Book of ASTMStandards volume information, refer to the standards Document Summary page onthe ASTM website.5Withdrawn.1Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.1.4 NIST Document:6NIST Technical Note 1297 Guidelines for Ev
15、aluating andExpressing the Uncertainty of NIST Measurement Re-sults, 19942. Terminologyabsorbed dose (D)Quantity of ionizing radiation energyimparted per unit mass of a specified material. The SI unit ofabsorbed dose is the gray (Gy), where 1 gray is equivalent tothe absorption of 1 joule per kilogr
16、am of the specifiedmaterial (1 Gy = 1 J/kg). The mathematical relationship isthe quotient of d by dm, where d is the mean incrementalenergy imparted by ionizing radiation to matter of incremen-tal mass dm. (ICRU)D 5 d/dm (1)DISCUSSION The discontinued unit for absorbed dose is the rad(1 rad = 100 er
17、g/g = 0.01 Gy). Absorbed dose is sometimes referred tosimply as dose. For a photon source under conditions of chargedparticle equilibrium, the absorbed dose, D, may be expressed asfollows:D 5F E en/r, (2)where:F = particle fluence (particles/m2),E = energy of the ionizing radiation (J), anden/r = ma
18、ss energy absorption coefficient (m2/kg).If bremsstrahlung production within the specified material isnegligible, the mass energy absorption coefficient (en/r)isequal to the mass energy transfer coefficient (tr/r), andabsorbed dose is equal to kerma if, in addition, charged particleequilibrium exist
19、s.absorbed dose rate, Dthe absorbed dose in a material perincremental time interval, that is, the quotient of d D by d t(see ICRU Report 33).D5 dD/dt (3)SI unit: Gys1.DISCUSSIONThe absorbed-dose rate is often specified in terms of theaverage value of D over longer time intervals, for example, in uni
20、ts ofGymin1or Gyh1.accuracythe closeness of agreement between a measure-ment result and an accepted reference value (see Terminol-ogy E 456).activation cross sectionthe cross section for processes inwhich the product nucleus is radioactive (see cross section).activity, Aof an amount of radioactive n
21、uclide in a particularenergy state at a given time, the quotient of dN by dt, wheredN is the expectation value of the number of spontaneousnuclear transitions from that energy state in the time intervaldt (ICRU).A 5 dN/dt (4)Unit: s1The special name for the unit of activity is the becquerel(Bq).1 Bq
22、 5 1s21(5)DISCUSSIONThe former special unit of activity was the curie (Ci).1 Ci 5 3.7 3 1010s21exactly!. (6)The “particular energy state” is the ground state of the nuclide unlessotherwise specified. The activity of an amount of radioactive nuclide in aparticular energy state is equal to the product
23、 of the decay constant for thatstate and the number of nuclei in that state (that is, A=Nl). (See decayconstant.)analysis bandwidthspectral band used in a photometricinstrument, such as a densitometer, for the measurement ofoptical absorbance or reflectance.analysis wavelengthwavelength used in a sp
24、ectrophotomet-ric instrument for the measurement of optical absorbance orreflectance.annihilation radiationgamma radiation produced by theannihilation of a positron and an electron. For particles atrest, two photons are produced, each having an energycorresponding to the rest mass of an electron (51
25、1 keV).backscatter peaka peak in the observed photon spectrum(normally below about 0.25 MeV) resulting from large-angle(110) Compton scattering of gamma rays from materialsnear the detector. This peak will not have the same shape asthe full-energy peaks (being wider and skewed toward lowerenergy).be
26、nchmark neutron fielda well-characterized neutron fieldwhich will provide a fluence of neutrons for validation orcalibration of experimental techniques and methods and forvalidation of cross sections and other nuclear data. Thefollowing classification of benchmark neutron fields forreactor dosimetry
27、 has been made:7controlled neutron fielda neutron field physically well-defined, and with some spectrum definition, employed for arestricted set of validation experiments.reference neutron fielda permanent and reproducible neu-tron field less well characterized than a standard field butaccepted as a
28、 measurement reference by a community ofusers.standard neutron fielda permanent and reproducible neu-tron field with neutron fluence rate and energy spectra, andtheir associated spatial and angular distributions character-ized to state-of-the-art accuracy. Important field quantitiesmust be verified
29、by interlaboratory measurements and cal-culations.bremsstrahlungbroad-spectrum electromagnetic radiationemitted when an energetic charged particle is influenced bya strong electric field, such as the Coulomb field of an atomicnucleus.DISCUSSIONIn radiation processing, bremsstrahlung photons aregener
30、ated by the deceleration or deflection of energetic electrons in atarget material. When an electron passes close to an atomic nucleus, thestrong Coulomb field causes the electron to deviate from its originalmotion. This interaction results in a loss of kinetic energy by theelectron with the emission
31、 of electromagnetic radiation; the photonenergy distribution extends up to the maximum kinetic energy of the6Available from National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), 100Bureau Dr., Stop 1070, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-1070, USA, http:/www.nist.gov7Neutron Cross Sections for Reactor Dosimet
32、ry, International Atomic EnergyAgency, Laboratory Activities, Vienna, 1978, Vol 1, p. 62.E170092incident electron. This bremsstrahlung spectrum depends on the elec-tron energy, the composition and thickness of the target, and the angleof emission with respect to the incident electron.buildup factorf
33、or radiation passing through a medium, theratio of the total value of a specified radiation quantity (suchas absorbed dose) at any point in that medium to thecontribution to that quantity from the incident uncollidedradiation reaching that point.cadmium ratiothe ratio of the neutron reaction rate me
34、a-sured with a given bare neutron detector to the neutronreaction rate measured with an identical neutron detectorenclosed by a particular cadmium cover and exposed in thesame neutron field at the same or an equivalent spatiallocation.DISCUSSIONIn practice, meaningful experimental values can beobtai
35、ned in an isotropic neutron field by using a cadmium filterapproximately 1 mm thick.calibrated instrumentan instrument for which the responsehas been documented upon being directly compared with theresponse of a standard instrument, both having been exposedto the same radiation field under the same
36、conditions; or onefor which the response has been documented upon beingexposed to a standard radiation field under well-definedconditions.calibration source or fieldsee electron standard field,g-ray standard field, and X-ray standard field.calorimeteran instrument capable of making absolute mea-sure
37、ments of energy deposition (or absorbed dose) in amaterial through measurement of its change in temperatureand a knowledge of the characteristics of its materialconstruction.certified reference materiala material that has been char-acterized by a recognized standard or testing laboratory, forsome of
38、 its chemical or physical properties, and that isgenerally used for calibration of a measurement system, orfor development or evaluation of a measurement method.DISCUSSIONCertification of a reference material can be obtained byone of the following three established routes of measurement ofproperties
39、: (1) using a previously validated reference method; (2) usingtwo or more independent, reliable measurement methods; and (3) usingan ad hoc network of cooperating laboratories, technically competent,and thoroughly knowledgeable with the materials being tested. Thecertified reference materials provid
40、ed by the United States NationalInstitute of Standards and Technology are called Standard ReferenceMaterials.charged particle equilibriuma condition that exists in anincremental volume within a material under irradiation if thekinetic energies and number of charged particles (of eachtype) entering t
41、hat volume are equal to those leaving thatvolume.DISCUSSIONWhen electrons are the predominatnt charged particle,the term “electron equilibrium” is often used to describe chargedparticle equilibrium. See also the discussions attached to the definitionsof kerma and absorbed dose in E 170.coincidence s
42、um peaka peak in the observed photon spec-trum produced at an energy corresponding to the sum of theenergies of two or more gamma- or x-rays from a singlenuclear event when the emitted photons interact with thedetector within the resolving time of the detector.Compton edge (Ec)the maximum energy val
43、ue of electronsof the Compton scattering continuum. The energy value ofthe Compton edge isEc5 Eg2Eg1 12Eg0.511(7)which corresponds to 180 scattering of the primary photonof energy Eg(MeV). For a 1 MeV photon, the Compton edgeis about 0.8 MeV.Compton scatteringelastic scattering of a photon by anatom
44、ic electron, under the condition of conservation ofmomentum, that is, the vector sum of the momenta of theoutgoing electron and photon is equal to the momentum ofthe incident photon. The scattered photon energy, E8g,isgiven byE8g5Eg1 1Eg1 2 cosu!0.511(8)where Egis the incident photon energy in MeV a
45、nd u is theangle between the direction of the primary and scatteredphoton. The electron energy, Ee, is equal to Eg E8g.continuumthe smooth distribution of energy deposited in agamma detector arising from partial energy absorption fromCompton scattering or other processes (for example,Bremsstrahlung)
46、. See Compton scattering.cross section, sthe quotient of P by F, where P is theprobability of the interaction for one target entity whensubjected to the particle fluence F (ICRU).s5P/F (9)Unit: m2The special unit of cross section is the barn, b.1b5 10228m2(10)decay constant, lof a radioactive nuclid
47、e in a particularenergy state, the quotient of dP by dt, where dP is theprobability of a given nucleus undergoing a spontaneousnuclear transition from that energy state in the time intervaldt (ICRU).l5dP/d t (11)Unit: s1DISCUSSIONThe quantity (ln 2)/l is commonly called the half-life,T12 , of the ra
48、dioactive nuclide, that is, the time taken for the activityof an amount of radioactive nuclide to become half its initial value.depth-dose distributionvariation of absorbed dose withdepth from the incident surface of a material exposed to agiven radiation.displacement dose (Dd)the quotient of d dby
49、dm, where ddis that part of the mean energy imparted by radiation tomatter which produces atomic displacements (that is, ex-cluding the part that produces ionization and excitation ofelectrons) in a volume element of mass dm.E170093Dd5 d d/dm (12)Unit:Jkg1DISCUSSIONA more common unit is displacements per atom(dpa), (see definition).displacements per atom (dpa)the mean number of timeseach atom of a solid is displaced from its lattice site duringan exposure to displacing radiation, as calculated followingsta
