1、The Welfare State (30s-mid 70s),Emerged in industrialized countries after the 1929 Crack (pioneers England and the U.S.) State intervention to create or increase demand and create “virtuous” economic cycles in times of recession (“helping” markets) State intervention to guarantee full employment and
2、 minimal conditions of labor and life for the population (enlarging the market),John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946),Member of the British elites A “Renaissance man” involved in many different activities (a Cambridge professor, journal editor, government officer, officer in international organizations, a
3、ctive in culture and the promotion of art) Works: The Economic Consequences of the Peace (1919) A Tract on Monetary Reform (1923) The End of Laissez Faire (1926) The General Theory of Employment, Interest, and Money (1936) Keynes Goal: To save Capitalism from crises and recession,Keynes on Laissez-F
4、aire (1926),“A study of the history of opinion is a necessary preliminary to the emancipation of the mind. I do not know which makes a man more conservativeto know nothing but the present, or nothing but the past.” (796),The maxim of Laissez-faire,“The maxim laissez-nous faire is traditionally attri
5、buted to the merchant Legendre addressing Colbert sometime towards the end of the seventeenth century. But there is no doubt that the first writer to use the phrase, and to use it in clear association with the doctrine, is the Marquis dArgenson about 1751.() To govern better, he said, one must gover
6、n less.” (797),Dominant “disposition towards public affairs”: Individualism and laissez-faire. Sources,18th century: “The purpose of promoting the Individual was to depose the Monarch and the Church; the effectthrough the new ethical significance attributed to Contractwas to buttress Property and Pr
7、escription.” (794) (With Rousseau and Bentham) “Equality and altruism entered political philosophy, and from Rousseau and Bentham in conjunction sprang both Democracy and Utilitarian Socialism.” (795) “Suppose that by the working of natural laws individuals pursuing their own interests with enlighte
8、nment in conditions of freedom always tend to promote the general interest at the same time!”(795) This was suggested by Adam Smith and perfected during the 19th century.,“The political philosopher could retire in favour of the businessmanfor the latter could attain the philosophers summun bonum by
9、just pursuing his own private profit.” (795),Elements reinforcing beliefs on laissez-faire,Corruption and incompetence of governments (18th century) The extraordinary achievements of the Industrial Revolution and private initiative Darwins influence: “The economists were teaching that wealth, commer
10、ce, and machinery were the children of free competitionthat free competition built London. But the Darwinians could go one better than thatfree competition had built man.()supreme achievement of Chance, operating under conditions of free competition and laissez-faire.” (796) Interventionism and Marx
11、ian Socialism (poor quality, according to Keynes) Wishes and beliefs of actual capitalists,Instituting a new Dogma:,“From this time on it was the political campaign for Free Trade, the influence of the so-called Manchester School and of the Benthamite Utilitarians, the utterances of secondary econom
12、ic authorities, and the educational stories of Miss Martineau and Mrs. Marcet, that fixed laissez-faire in the popular mind as the practical conclusion of orthodox Political Economy”(798),“From the time of John Stuart Mill, economists of authority have been in strong reaction against all such ideas.
13、() Economists no longer have any link with the theological or political philosophies out of which the dogma of Social Harmony was born, and their scientific analysis leads them to no such conclusions.”(799) Cairnes Marshall (What about the “tragedy of the commons”?),The Assumption/s of Economic Indi
14、vidualism,“Economists, like other scientists, have chosen the hypothesis from which they set out, and which they offer to beginners, because it is the simplest, and not because it is the nearest to the facts.” (799),Popularized assumptions:,“a state of affairs where the ideal distribution of product
15、ive resources can be brought about through individuals acting independently by the method of trial and error in such a way that those individuals who move in the right direction will destroy by competition those who move in the wrong direction. This implies that there must be no mercy or protection
16、for those who embark their capital or their labour in the wrong direction It does not count the cost of the struggle, but looks only to the benefits of the final result which are assumed to be permanent.” (799),Twin assumptions:,“unhindered natural selection leads to progress” “efficacy, and, indeed
17、, the necessity, of the opportunity for unlimited private money-making as an incentive to maximun effort.” (800),If we follow facts instead of fantasies,Complications arise: “(1)when the efficient units of production are largely relative to the units of consumption, (2) when overhead costs or joint
18、costs are present, (3) when internal economies tend to the aggregation of production, (4) when the time required for adjustments is long, (5) when ignorance prevails over knowledge, and (6) when monopolies and combinations interfere with equality in bargainingthey economists reserve for a later stag
19、e their analysis of the actual facts.” (800),Facts Against Metaphysics,“Let us clear from the ground the metaphysical or general principles upon which, from time to time, laissez-faire has been founded. It is not true that individuals possess a prescriptive natural liberty in their economic activiti
20、es. There is no compact conferring perpetual rights on those who Have or those who Acquire. The world is not so governed from above that private and social interest always coincide. It is not so managed here below that in practice they coincide. It is not a correct deduction from the Principles of E
21、conomics that enlightened self-interest always operates in the public interest. Not is it true that self-interest generally is enlightened Experience does not show that individuals, when they make up a social unit, are always less clear-sighted than when they act separatedly.” (802),The dogma of lai
22、ssez-faire,“venturing into the den of the lethargic monster, at any rate I have traced his claims and pedigree so as to show that he has ruled over us rather by hereditary right than by personal merit.” (802),Keynes suggestions:,“I come to a criterion of Agenda which is particularly relevant to what
23、 it is urgent and desirable to do in the near future.()The most important Agenda of the State relate not to those activities which private individuals are already fulfiling, but to those made by no one if the State does not make them. The important thing for Government is not to do things which indi
24、viduals are doing already, and to do them a little better or a little worse; but to do those things which at present are not done at all.” (803),The cure for economic evils lies in society and not on individuals:,“These measures would involve Society in exercising directive intelligence through some appropriate organ of action over many of the inner intricacies of private business, yet it would leave private initiative and enterprise unhindered.” (804),Keynesian insights,Need of considering:Short run vs. Long Run Velocity of circulation of Money Cycles,
