1、Aristotle (384 - 322 BCE),Life & Times,Aristotle (384-322 BCE),Platos student born in Macedonia about the time Plato was opening the Academy in Athens age seven went to Athens and entered the Academy-stayed on as teacher; left 20 yrs later on Platos death in 347 Was ineligible to inherit Academy bec
2、ause he wasnt Athenian like Plato, he studied a vast array of subjects-teaching biology, politics, rhetoric, zoology, ethics, philosophy,Aristotle (384-322 BCE),believed only scientific demonstration and the analysis of formal logic could arrive at transcendent truth Dialectic and rhetoric form 2 ma
3、jor divisions in his view of human inquiry but they deal with subjects on which true knowledge isnt available His Rhetoric synthesizes much of the teaching on rhetoric and proposes a few new angles of the problem with rhetoric that interest Plato rhetoric is the art of discovering the means of persu
4、asion available for any subject-this discovery requires scientific investigation,Aristotle (384-322 BCE),rhetorician must start with knowledge ”the way in which a thing is said does affect its intelligibility” but only “owing to the defects of the hearers” (Book III, CH. 1) rhetoric is the art of pu
5、blic speaking dialectic is the art of logical discussion analyzes and classifies proper province for an art of rhetoric as Plato set forth in Phaedrus -study of souls and the occasions for moving them rhetoric is useful in making practical decisions (like Isocrates),Aristotle (384-322 BCE),intereste
6、d in psychology of rhetoric rhetoric useful in making decisions where true knowledge is not available enthymemes are rhetorical arguments rhetoric in context of law, praises or blames, political debate-not just a concern with speech but with the action that will result form speech public speakers mu
7、st understand forms of govt so they can adapt proposals to the ruler to be persuaded,Differing Views of Reality,Plato Reality is there and communication reflects reality. Aristotle Reality is probably there and communication is a relationship with reality. Gorgias Reality is not there and communicat
8、ion creates reality.,Rhetoric, has its own Identity,A counterpart to dialectic not cookery Not moral but pragmatic and scientific A study of all the available means of persuasion Functions to discover in each context the best way to by successful,Rhetorics Usefulness,Prevents fraud and injustice Aid
9、s instruction Makes us argue both sides Helps in self-defense,Rhetoric Book 1,The Nature of Rhetoric,Book I,speaks strongly against radical Platonic idealism by noting that we do not live in the perfect world which Plato sought to establish therefore there are many good uses for rhetoric defines Rhe
10、toric: the art of discovering in any given case what are the best means of persuasion Rhetoric is ARTISTIC: organized according to principles, flexible to personal interpretation, expressive, with aesthetic considerations, and disposed toward utility,Book I,Rhetoric is about DISCOVERY: rhetoric is n
11、ot merely the words, or their performance. Rather, the intellectual and philosophical development of that which should be said and how to say it best. Rhetoric is about effective human thought in the realm of communication interests. Rhetoric is particular to the given case. at its best it is not ca
12、nned or pre-fabed. It is individualized to specific cases. Rhetoric is about PERSUASION.,Book I,text comprised of lecture notes and was probably never intended for publication (book and chapter divisions probably work of later eds.) most of the text, in fact, may be work of his students-their notes
13、from his lectures,Book I Chapter One,Rhetoric as Techn Definition of Rhetoric as counterpart of dialectic The centrality of proofs and enthymemes The usefulness of rhetoric The true and the just are naturally superior to their opposites General audiences lack the ability to follow scientific reasoni
14、ng Rhetoric proves opposites in order to counteract false argument,Book I Chapter Two,Analysis of Rhetoric as a System Rhetorical theory organized hierarchically divides rhetoric into 2 major categories: artistic proofs for which the rhetorician constructs the material inartistic proofs for which he
15、 interprets existing evidence Definition of Rhetoric as a Faculty Rhetoric may then be defined as the faculty of discovering the possible means of persuasion in reference to any subject whatever.,Book I Chapter Two,Analysis of Rhetoric as a SystemConcerning Proofs Two Types of Proofs Artistic and in
16、artistic proofs modern scholars see Aristotle as dividing artistic proofs into 2 major categories: enthymeme and example with logical ethical and pathetic appeals as subdivisions under,Book I Chapter Two,Concerning Proofs Two Types of Proofs Artistic and inartistic proofs Types of inartistic proofs
17、evidence like testimonies, contracts, knives, tortured slaves Types of artistic proofs Logos-logical arguments Pathos-causes of emotion in humans not irrational or nonrational as in Gorgiass enchantments Ethos-character, human goodness, virtue,Book I Chapter Two,Modes of proof: example and enthymeme
18、 Rhetorical vs. dialectical proofs induction = example Syllogism = enthymeme enthymeme superior to example The function of Rhetoric, then, is to deal with things about which we deliberate, but for which we have no systematic rules; and in the presence of such hearers as are unable to take a general
19、view of many stages, or to follow a lengthy chain of argument. But we only deliberate about things which seem to admit of issuing in two ways; as for those things which cannot in the past, present, or future be otherwise, no one deliberates about them, if he supposes that they are such; for nothing
20、would be gained by it.,The Syllogism-Logic,All men are mortal Socrates is a man Therefore, Socrates is mortalsyllogisms usually based on probable and not on certain premises,The Enthymeme,The center of Aristotles Theory deductive arguments Two part definition: Truncated syllogism Shared values,Enthy
21、meme-truncated,So . . . Socrates is a man Therefore, he is mortal,Enthymeme-shared values,What the speaker and audience share “held in the mind” (Herrick, p. 81) The argument is completed by the rhetor and the audience at the same time,Book I Chapter Two,Probabilities For that which is probable is t
22、hat which generally happens, not however unreservedly, as some define it, but that which is concerned with things that may be other than they are, being so related to that in regard to which it is probable as the universal and the particular. Concerning the Topics of Proofs Logos Division of Enthyme
23、mes into General and Specific Topics,Book I Chapter Three,Three kinds of speech-determined by the situation deliberative or political speech-intended to recommend a future course of action epideictic or ceremonial-intended to praise or blame a current state of affairs forensic or legal-intended to p
24、rovoke judgment concerning past action only scientific demonstration leads to absolute truth; dialectic (a rigorous form of argumentative dialogue btw experts) tests whether absolute truth has been achieved and rhetoric conveys that truth to the ignorant-but will not lead to truth,Book I Chapter Thr
25、ee,The Kinds of Rhetoric - division of Rhetoric into three kinds corresponding to three audiences Deliberative Forensic Epideictic Subject Matter deliberative: exhortation and dissuasion forensic: accusatory or defensive epideictic: praise or blame Time deliberative: future forensic: past epideictic
26、: present,Book I Chapter Three,End deliberative: expedient or harmful forensic: just or unjust epideictic: honor or disgrace General Topics possible and impossible past happening and future happening the more and the less,Book I Chapter Four,Catalogues Topics of Deliberative Rhetoric advice is limit
27、ed to those subjects about which we take counsel; and such are all those which can naturally be referred to ourselves and the first cause of whose origination is in our own power Five Deliberative Subjects Ways and Means War and Peace Defense Imports and Exports Legislation,Book I Chapter Five,Topic
28、s of Exhortation for nearly all men admit that one or more of these things constitutes happiness.,Book I Chapter Five,External Goods birth (eugeneia) good children Wealth good reputation (eudoxia) honor (tim) Internal Goods Health Beauty Strength Stature Athleticism happy old age friends,Book I Chap
29、ter Five,Good Fortune Virtue Reserved For Topic Of Praise,Book I Chapter Six,Topics of the Expedient or would be, if they could acquire the latter.,Book I Chapter Six,Necessary (Generally Recognized) Goods Health Happiness virtues of the soul virtues of the body Wealth Friendship Honor Eloquence cap
30、acity for action natural cleverness good memory readiness to learn quick-wittedness and the like justice,Book I Chapter Six,Doubtful Goods the opposite of evil that which is not in excess that which is competed for that which is the object of praise that which is praised by ones enemies that chosen
31、by the wise or good all things deliberately chosen or wished for,Book I Chapter Seven,Greater and More Expedient Goods It would seem then that it is better to receive than to confer a benefit; for one would choose the former even if it should pass unnoticed, whereas one would not choose to confer a
32、benefit, if it were likely to remain unknown definition of greater and less things that belong to a superior class first in an irreversible sequence greater in amount of similar things things that produce a greater good things produced by a greater cause that which is more desirable in itself an end
33、 is superior to the means things less dependent on other things,Book I Chapter Seven,Greater and More Expedient Goods cause or first principle superior to what is not of two causes, what results from or causes the greater is greater that which is scarcer and the reverse that which is more difficult
34、and the reverse that the lack of which is greater virtue and vice as ends are superior to their negations things whose works are nobler or more disgraceful the works of things virtues and vices are greater things in which superiority is more desirable than in other things superiority in better and n
35、obler things things the desire for which is nobler and better,Book I Chapter Seven,Greater and More Expedient Goods subjects of nobler and more dignified sciences and vice versa that which wise people would judge to be a greater good things better people possess or would choose things more agreeable
36、, nobler, for which we have a greater desire to procure things that last longer, or are safer things follow relations between coordinates (e.g. nominal vs. corresponding adverbial comparisons) things chosen by all or the majority, or by opponents or judges things in which all participate, or in whic
37、h few participate things more praiseworthy or more highly honored,Book I Chapter Seven,Greater and More Expedient Goods special occasions, ages, places, times, and powers things that are natural greater than things acquired the greatest part of a great thing things available when in greater need, mo
38、re useful to a particular person, more possible, nearer the end proposed, nearer the end of life the real preferable to matters of public opinion things people would rather possess in reality than in appearance things that serve several ends goods that combine to make the whole greater (such as plea
39、sure and freedom from pain) things that do not go unnoticed and therefore appear more real that which is held most dear,Book I Chapter Eight,The Most Important Topics of Persuasion and Dissuasion: Forms of Government Definition of the Forms of Government Enumeration of the Four Forms of Government D
40、emocracy Oligarchy Aristocracy Monarchy (Kingdom or Tyranny),Book I Chapter Eight,Ends of Each Form of Government Democracy Liberty Oligarchy Wealth Aristocracy Education & Law Tyranny Self-Protection Characters of Each Form of Government Summary of the Topics of Deliberative Rhetoric,Book I Chapter
41、 Nine,Topics of Epideictic Rhetoric Introduction virtue and vice the noble and the disgraceful praise and blame Virtue and vice in general related qualities whatever produces virtue or comes from virtue works signs and acts of courage, just things and just actions things of which the reward is honor
42、 rather than money desirable things not done for ones own sake, absolute goods done for the country, natural goods, goods not done for the individual things possible to possess after death, done for others, acts of kindness,Book I Chapter Nine,Virtue and vice in general related qualities things for
43、which we strive without fear things done by worthier people things which cause others enjoyment retaliation, victory, things worthy of remembrance, accompanied by honor, unusual things possessed by a single individual, that bring no profit, customs pertaining to individual groups Qualities that rese
44、mble the real qualities encomium amplification Digression: Topics of Argument Suited to Each Kind epideictic = amplification deliberative = example forensic = enthymeme Summation of Epideictic Topics,Book I Chapter Ten,Topics of Accusation and Defense (Forensic): Introduction Partition nature and nu
45、mber of motives of injustice state of mind of those who act unjustly character of those exposed to injustice Definition Let injustice, then, be defined as voluntarily causing injury contrary to the law. particular-general law voluntary-involuntary premeditated-unpremeditated,Book I Chapter Ten,Topic
46、s of Accusation and Defense (Forensic): The Particulars Nature of Motives seven causes of human action Chance Nature Compulsion Habit Reason Anger desire The pleasant all that we do voluntarily is or seems good or pleasant,Book I Chapter Eleven,definition Let it be assumed by us that pleasure is a c
47、ertain movement of the soul, a sudden and perceptible settling down into its natural state, and pain the opposite. rational and irrational desires hope and memory Therefore all pleasant things must either be present in sensation, or past in recollection, or future in hope,Book I Chapter Eleven,more
48、topics of the pleasant Revenge Victory gaming, competition, and disputation honor and good repute Friendship admiration and flattery familiarity and change learning and admiring bestowing and receiving benefit sudden changes and narrow escapes like things are pleasant to each other pleasure in ones
49、own likeness to oneself flattery, honor, children ones own work being regarded as wise finding fault with neighbors devoting time to things in which one excels amusements and ridiculous things the painful the contrary of all these,Book I Chapter Twelve,States of Mind of those who commit injustice th
50、ey think it can be done by them their action will be undiscovered or unpunished the punishment will be less than the profit they will escape due to eloquence, business sense, trial experience, influence, wealth or their friends have the above qualities if they are friends of those wronged or of the
51、judges if character out of keeping with charges if acts are done openly if acts are of such a nature no one would be likely to attempt them if they have either no enemy or many enemies they have ways to conceal stolen property or means of disposal they can get the trial put off or corrupt the judges,
